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LE^VITT'S 

Condensing and Moulding Mill 

FOR THE MANUFACTURE OF 

PE AT FU EL. 

These machines are simple, compact, strong, and effectual for the 
purpose required. As at present constructed, they possess important 
improvements over those we have sold or had in use during the past 
three years ; and, as the result of persistent investigation and practi- 
cal operation, are believed to embody, in the most simple manner 
possible, all the essentials requisite for producing, from peat, the 
best fuel, in the largest quantity, and at the least cost. 

They are of two sizes ; of the capacity of ITiJfTty Tons and 
Ono Hundred Tons each, of crude peat, as taken from 
the bog, per day of ten hours. 

^^ The first produces 

Thirty Thonsanci Blocks per Day, 
weighing, in moist condition, as they come from the mill, 

FIFTY TONS, 

and yielding a product of from twelve to twenty tons of dry fuel, at a 
cost for labor of less than two dollars per ton. 
Requires about six-horse power to operate it. Weight, 3700 lbs. 

PRICE ONE THOUSAND DOLLARS. 



ggl 333 The other produces 

Sixty Thousand Blocks per Day, 

weighing, in moist condition, as they come from the mill, 
ONE XXTHNXMEKETO TONS, 

and yielding a product of from twenty-five to forty tons of dry fuel, 
at a cost for labor of less than two dollars per ton. 

Kequires about ten-horse power to operate it. "Weight, 5000 lbs. 

PRICE FIFTEEN HUNDRED DOLLARS. 

ggl 333 These prices cover also, the right to use, free of any royalty 
or extra charge under our Letters Patent ; and also entitle the pur- 
chaser to the free use and benefit of any and all improvements upon 
the machine which we may at any time hereafter devise. 

The machines are boxed and shipped in such manner as to be 
easily and safely transported to any part of the country. 

(i) 



11 MANUFACTURE OF PEAT FUEL. 

Carefully prepared instructions, in detail, for setting up and run- 
ning, are sent with each machine, so that, with ordinary tact and 
ability, they may be set up, and operations commenced, without diffi- 
culty or hinderance. 

A set of machinery occupies a space of about four by fifteen feet, 
requires about ten-horse power to run it, with twelve men, three 
boys, and two horses, to cut the crude material from the bog, haul it 
to tb*e works, tend the engine and machinery, and place the wet blocks 
of peat, as they come from the machine, on to the spreading-ground, 
to dry. 

The machine receives the crude peat just as it is taken from the 
bog, condenses it, and, in a very few minutes, delivers it in the form 
of bricks, which may then be exposed in the. open air or under shel- 
ter, on the ground, or on a flooring of boards, or. on frames prepared 
for the purpose, to dry and cure. The time ordinarily required, in 
the summer season, for drying sufficiently to be housed, is about six 
# or eight days, though it varies from four to ten, according to the 
weather. 

The process is exceedingly simple, and the machinery equally so. 
The original organization of the peat is entirely destroyed ; the air 
(of which a large amount is contained in its cells) is ejected ; advan- 
tage is taken of some of the natural properties of the material, and 
the mass is condensed in its moist state ; in which condition it is 
formed into blocks of convenient size and shape, and delivered from 
the machine to be exposed for drying, as before mentioned, in much 
the same manner as bricks are exposed in a brick-yard. 

The fuel prepared by this process is called condensed peat, in con- 
tradistinction to compressed peat ; the material being absolutely con- 
densed, without employing any very considerable pressure in the 
process. 

The buildings for sheltering the machinery and housing the fuel 
should be located on dry ground, near to and by the side of the bog, 
and may be of the most inexpensive character. 

For one set of machinery, with engine and boiler, a building twenty 
by twenty feet is large enough; and, for each additional set of 
machinery, ten feet in length should be added. The most desirable 
location for tins building is on a side-hill ; so that, while the machi- 
nery is placed on the lower floor, the crude material may be easily 
hauled to the level of the second floor, and there dumped by the 
cart-load into the hopper prepared to receive it. The height between 
floors in this building should be ten feet. 

The other buildings required are simply for shelter of the fuel after 
it is sufficiently dry to be housed ; and their extent must, of course, 
be regulated by the amount manufactured. 



MANUFACTURE OF PEAT FUEL. ill 

The laborers employed, with the exception of an engineer, may be 
of the least expensive class. 

Peat varies in its character very materially in different localities ; 
but, as a general thing, we estimate that it is reduced in the process 
of manufacture about two thirds to three quarters, both in weight 
and bulk, according to the character or composition of the crude ma- 
terial, and the drainage of the meadow or bog from which it is cut. 
Peat from a well-drained meadow, retaining, of course, less water in 
the mass, is much more conveniently and economically manufactured 
than that from a meadow which is constantly overflowed; and the 
shrinkage, it will readily be understood, is less. 

From the best peats we can, of course, produce a superior article 
of hard, dry fuel ; but an essential feature of our process is, that we 
are able to produce, with equal ease, an excellent fuel from inferior 
and comparatively worthless crude material. 

The cost of one set of machinery, of 100 tons capacity, together 
with the needful buildings, engine, boiler, shafting, &c, maybe any- 
where from $4000 to 6000, and the cost of an establishment with a 
fifty ton machine, is ordinarily about a thousand dollars less. 

One set of machinery turns out the material for twenty-five tons, 
or more, of dry fuel per day, of value, at the present time, of $10 
per ton, which is equal to $250 per day. The cost of labor to pro- 
duce this is less than $2 per ton, to which may be added as much 
more for cost of* transportation to market, say, whole cost delivered 
in market $4 per ton, and this shows a net gain of $150 on the 
product of each day. 

If, then, out of the season, which is from April to October, seven 
months, we run only one hundred days, the gain will amount to 
$15,000 ; or if one hundred and fifty days, it will amount to $22,500. 
If, however, we reduce the price even as low as $6 per ton, the gain 
in one hundred days will be $5000, or, in one hundred and fifty days, 
it will be $7500 ; in either case it shows a business of no inconsider- 
able gain, especially when we take into consideration the small 
amount of capital required to conduct it. 

The cost, as above stated, is for the product of one set of machi- 
nery : but, where several machines are to be "~~:\*ied in one estab- 
lishment, and the business is to be o^naucted on an extensive scale, 
the cost pro ratn .'I fcs ,ery much reduced, as one man can easily 
superintend several machines, the laborers generally can be employed 
to better advantage, and numerous mechanical appliances to save 
manual labor and expedite the operations, which it would not be ad- 
visable to construct where a single machine only was to be run, may 
be economically introduced on more extensive works ; and in this man- 
ner it is quite probable that the expense may be reduced to one dollar 



IV MANUFACTURE OF PEAT FUEL. 

and twenty-fire cents per ton, and some have estimated as low as one 
dollar per ton. The profit of such an establishment will therefore 
be largely in excess of smaller works. 

We build machines only to order, and for this reason it is desirable 
that parties wishing to purchase should give their orders in ample 
season, so as to avoid the possible delay which might otherwise 
occur. 

• ^ 3= Our Works are at East Lexington, about ten miles from 
Boston, and are freely open to inspection. 

Cars leave the depot of the Fitchburg Railroad, in Boston, at 8.35, 
a. m., 12, m., and 2.45, p. m. Get out at Pierce's Bridge Station. 
Returning, leave Lexington at 1.22, 3.40, and 6.10, p. m. 

A full-sized machine can be seen in motion, in a building near our 
office in Boston. 

Rights for Towns, Counties, and States foe Sale. 



LEAVITT «& HUNNEWELL, 

Agents for the Boston Peat Co., 

No. 49 Congress Street, Boston. 



We are represented by 

Messrs. Pardee & Benedict, 31 Pine Street, New York; 

Elisha Congdon, Esq., Chelsea, Michigan ; 

Messrs. Delaplaine, Burdick & Gray, Madison, Wis. ; to either 
of whom application may be made for information, or for the pur- 
chase of rights or machines. 



A MIXED FUEL, 

OF 
IS PRODUCED 

AT MODERATE COST, 

FROM 

COAL DXJST .AJNX> PEAT. 



By a modification of our machinery for manufacturing Peat, we 
are also enabled to accomplish most perfectly 

The Utilization of Coal Dust! 

an article which, it is well known, accumulates in very large quanti- 
ties at the mines, in coal-yards and elsewhere, and is generally con- 
sidered of little or no value. 

For several years this matter has engaged the attention of Dr. H. 
S. Lucas, of Chester, Mass., who has discovered and perfected a 
process by which the desired result is obtained, and which is at once 
so simple, inexpensive, and effectual, as to commend it to the consid- 
erate attention of consumers of fuel generally. 

The coal dust is mingled and manufactured with Peat, in such 
proportions and in such manner, as to produce a compound of great 
strength and solidity, which burns more freely than coal, yields an 
intense heat, cokes perfectly, and is peculiarly well adapted for severe 
steam service ; also for the smelting of ores, and the manufacture of 
gas for illuminating purposes. 

Repeated experiments demonstrate these facts fully. The fuel is 
manufactured at a cost, for labor, of less than one dollar per ton, after 
the materials are at the works. 

It is an ascertained fact of no little importance that salt water or 
marine peats are of value fully equal, and in some respects superior, 
to inland peats, for this purpose. 

The process and machinery by which this is accomplished are fully 
secured by Letters Patent ; the matter is in the hands of an associa- 
tion of business men, who fully comprehend the importance of these 
inventions, as bearing upon the question of good fuel at low cost ; and 
the agency for the United States is in our hands. 

We are prepared to give information, to negotiate for the sale of 
rights, and to furnish machines. 

LEAVITT «fc JiUJNTN-fclYVJbJI/L, 

49 Congress Street, Boston. 
Details concerning this fuel arc giver on page 277, of Facts about Peat. 



LEAVITT'S PEAT JOURNAL : 



A NEWSPAPER, 

DEVOTED ESPECIALLY TO THE DISSEMINATION OF INFORMATION 
RELATING TO 

PEAT, 



ITS PREPARATION AND USE 



AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL, 



AND GENERALLY TO ALL THAT PERTAINS TO 

V 

The Economical Production and Use of Fuel 

OF ALL KINDS. 



ISSXJE3D MCXDsTTHIjY, 
BY 

LEAVITT & HUNNEWELL, 

49 Congress St., Boston. 



PRICE FIFTY CTS. PER ANNUM. 

For Sale by all Newsmen. 




LBAVITT'S PEAT CONDENSING AND MOULDING MILL. 



,1 



FACTS ABOUT 

PEAT 

AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

WITH 

REMARKS UPON ITS ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION, THE LOCALITIES IN 

WHICH IT IS EOUND, THE METHODS OF PREPARATION AND 

MANUFACTURE, AND THE VARIOUS USES TO WHICH 

IT IS APPLICABLE; TOGETHER WITH MANY 

OTHER MATTERS OF PRACTICAL AND 

SCIENTIFIC INTEREST. 

TO WHICH IS ADDED, A CHAPTER ON THE 

UTILIZATION OF COAL DUST WITH PEAT, 

FOR THE PRODUCTION OF AN EXCELLENT FUEL, AT MODERATE COST, 

SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR STEAM SERVICE. 



BY 

T. H. LEAVITT. 



THIRD EDITION,- REVISED AND ENLARGED. 



BOSTON: 
LEE AND SHEPARD. 

18 67. 









Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1867, by 

T. H. LEAYITT, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 



Stereotyped at the Boston Stereotype Foundry, 
k Spring Lane. 






CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Introduction to Third Edition 7 

Preliminary Remarks 9 

Importance attached to fire ; its universal use; full value and influence 
upon changes in nature; heat, light, and fuel essential to man ; artificial 
heat required in useful arts ; its use as motive-power comparatively mod- 
ern ; influence of fuel upon the political power of a country; material 
sources of heat ; substances employed as fuel; fuel a source of wealth ; 
what substances are termed fuel.; Avhen inflammable fuels are required, 
and how peat answers such requirements ; wood, peat, and coal allied ; 
changes induced by physical effects ; analogy existing between peat and 
coal; vegetable origin; peat as fuel comparatively unknown; value of 
peat not realized ; aim of former manufacturers ; numerous machines, 
but no satisfactory method of manufacture ; failure through lack of com- 
prehension of nature of peat; popular error in manufacture of peat; 
simplicity and cheapness of recent inventions ; superiority of peat for 
domestic and manufacturing purposes ; peat for generating steam ; can 
compete in cost with coal ; peat for railroads ; every manufactory can 
have its own peat-meadow, and the result of such ownership ; Profes- 
sor Emmons's remarks and opinions. 

Origin and Composition of Peat . . 20 

What is it? color and consistency; natural history; theories of for- 
mation; peat in England, Ireland, Scotland, Germany, Holland, and 
France ; area, depth, and quality; stratification with gravel, clay, shells, 
&c; opiuions of Professor Dana, Macculloch, Williams, Sir James Hall, 
Dr. Rennie, and others ; " recent peat" and " older peat; " peat-mead- 
ows may be probed, and how ; density ; percentage of moisture ; highly 
inflammable ; animal and vegetable remains found in peat-bogs ; per- 
centage of ash; odor from burning peat; peat peculiar to cold climates; 
peat in England, Scotland, and France ; Professor Lyell and Dr. Darwin 
quoted ; early mention of peat from various authorities ; sweet and 
wholesome fire for invalids. 

Methods of Preparation for Fuel . . . . . .32 

Primitive methods of cutting and preparing peat-fuel; peat-knife or 
stone described; recent operations at Barnstable; peat sold in Boston; 
" hand-peat " in Holland and Ireland ; machines for cutting peat ; dredg- 
ing peat; best peat-cutter, and what it will accomplish; B. H. Paul on 
" The Utilization of Peat ; " method in Scotland ; methods of manufac- 
ture in Europe, devised by Williams, Codbold, Stones, Buckland, Hodg- 
son, Gwynne & Co., Maunhardt, Exter, Versmaun, Challeton, Siemens, 
Weber, Gysser, Schlickensen, and others, comprising the icet process and 
dry process; advantages and disadvantages of the two processes ; meth- 
ods of manufacture in America; variety of presses and machines; de- 
scription of works at Lexington, Mass.,Pekin, N. Y., Bulstrode, C. W., 
Belleville, N. J., comprising the Ashcroft & Betteley, Roberts, Hodges, 
Elsberg, and Leavitt machines ; estimates for putting up peat-works ; 
cost of labor to manufacture peat-fuel ; data concerning peat-beds, and 
results of observation from practical operations at the works of the 
Boston Peat Co. at Lexington ; method of working ; yield of dry fuel ; 
specific gravity ; weight per cord ; quality improves by age ; should be 
housed; drying peat; peculiarities; what is required; steady progress 
is beinjr made. 

1 (1) 



2 CONTENTS. 

Peat-Charcoal 69 

Simple mode of carbonizing ; advantage gained by coking; density 
superior to best -wood-charcoal ; calorific power intense ; specimens in 
Great Exhibition at Paris iti 1651 ; peat and peat-charcoal used in Paris; 
general principles of carbonizing the same in all countries ; Professor 
Johnson on its value and uses; comparative value of charcoal from peat 
manufactured by the dry and wet processes, with tests; high heating 
power; disinfecting and fertilizing qualities. 

Peat in Europe 73 

Ireland ; Mr. Griffith's description of bogs of Ireland ; bog of Dourah; 
how bog-timber is found; " The Bog of Allen;" extent of peat soil in 
Ireland; value of amount cut, and importance of peat in Ireland; Mr. 
Aher quoted ; forests overthrown and covered with peat ; timber, coins, 
arms, and utensils found in peat ; forests destroyed ; bog-iron ore. 

Peat in France 81 

Peat-fuel for Paris market ; where cut ; quantity ; value ; peat-charcoal 
and ashes; "best fuel the earth produces;" French treatise on peat; 
uses of peat and charcoal; value of peat-ashes; estimates of the value of 
peat-fuel by French engineers; consumption of fuel of all kinds in 
France; its equivalent in peat; cost of working pig iron; economy of 
peat for all purposes ; estimate of peat-fuel required for the entire loco- 
motive service of France; bulk of peat-fuel; testimony of Supt. of R. R. 
Engineers ; density of peat-fuel. 

Peat in Italy 87 

Successful introduction of peat in the puddling of iron and steel ; ac- 
complished by the Siemens Gas Furnace ; iron mines of Elba; amount 
of pig iron produced. 

Peat on the Falkland Islands 88 

Destitute of coal and wood ; peat is abundant. 

Peat in Newfoundland 88 

Large quantities of good peat ; the manufacture of it commenced. 

Peat in Nova Scotia 88 

Peat-bogs numerous ; well decomposed and bituminous. 

Peat in Asia 89 

Major Risley's account of "combustible mud; " tried on locomotive 
at Cawnpore; compared with wood; cost; superstitions of the natives. 

Peat in Canada 90 

Location, character, and extent of deposits of peat ; Mr. Hodges's oper- 
ations : experiments on Grand Trunk R. R. ; contract to furnish peat to 
G. T. R. R. Co. ; importance of the fuel question in Canada ; estimate of 
annual amount to be saved by the use of peat; government should aid 
the peat-fuel enterprise; probabilities of sufficient supply; present suf- 
fering and privation for lack of cheap fuel; supply abundant; requires 
only enterprise and capital. 

Peat in Maine 101 

Statements by Dr. Jackson ; analysis; similarity to coal; theory of 
its formation; superiority over wood and coal; abundant deposits; 
localities; may be used for burning lime and for domestic purposes; 
Campo Bello. 

Peat in New Hampshire 103 

Deposits numerous and of excellent quality; localities; prospects. 

Peat in Vermont 104 

Peat-beds in all parts of the State ; great depth ; interesting peculiari- 
ties; localities; marl-beds; beaver works; remarkable discoveries; 



CONTENTS. 6 

boaes of elephants found In peat; peat suitable for gas; peat at great 
elevation. 

Peat in MASSACHUSETTS 108 

Dr. Hitclicoek's Btatements and opinions ; eighty thousand acres of 
peat in the State; peat fever; localities; varieties of peat; peculiarities 
Of peat-beds j submerged forests; letter from Elias riiinney; peat-fuel 
as compared with wood : formation of peat ; when and how to cut and 
cure; its value; Dr. Rennie on peat; peat-water astringent and anti- 
saptie; salubrity and healthfulness of peat-bogs; similarity of peat and 
coal ; similarity of origin. 

Peat in Rhode Island 117 

Teat in nearly every town in the State ; some of excellent quality, and 
is to be worked for fuel ; manufacturing interests promoted by it. 

Peat in Connecticut 118 

Rich in deposits of peat; Professor Johnson's report; localities; 
preparations for producing the fuel ; its importance to manufacturing 
establishments and railroads. 

Peat in New York 120 

Reports by Professor Mather, Mr. Vanuxem, and Dr. Emmons; high 
economical value of peat; extracts from reports; importance urged; 
great body of heat ; substitute for best Liverpool coal ; how to test it; 
where to rind it; ranks next to coal for sustaining high temperature; 
abundance and cheapness commend it to public attention; extended list 
of localities ; bones of the mastodon found in peat in several localities ; 
ostrich egg in peat ; numerous peat-beds on Long Island ; peat is an im- 
portant item in the natural resources of wealth in the State. 

Peat in New Jersey 138 

Deposits numerous;- interest manifested; localities; marl beds ; cedar 
swamps, and what is found in them; great age of some of the trees; 
peat very pure; large amount of timber raised from the swamps ; used 
for rails and shingles ; immense bogs. 

Peat in Pennsylvania . . ; 141 

Peat-bogs are unripe beds of coal; interesting and valuable extracts 
from Geological Report of the State ; description of a very peculiar peat- 
bog in Denmark; Dismal Swamp ; the beautiful economy of nature ; its 
laws are simple ; progress slow; results wonderful ; remarkable bed of 
lignite in Germany ; another peculiar deposit in Denmark. 

Peat in Virginia 146 

The Great Dismal Swamp ; peat companies to operate in it; " Bare Gar- 
den ; " peculiarities of growth and formation: analyses of peats by Pro- 
fessors Johnson and Silliman; formation of these deposits; quality and 
depth of peat; Dismal Swamp Canal ; peculiarities of the wood, water, 
and atmosphere of the swamp ; choice timber ; rich and pure peat ; facil- 
ities for manufacture and shipment ; area and depth ; capital and enter- 
prise attracted ; sweetwater: antiseptic properties. 

Peat in Ohio 156 

Information wanted. 

Peat in Michigan 156 

Letter from Professor Winchell; deposits numerous, deep, and of good 
quality ; importance of the subject to housekeeper, capitalist, and man- 
ufacturer; analyses; supply inexhaustible ; operations commenced. 

Peat in Indiana 159 

Thousands of acres of good quality : operations commenced ; one bog 
containing one hundred and eighty square miles of peat, forty feet deep; 
ample supply along t!;r lines of railroads. 



4 CONTENTS. 

Peat in Illinois 161 

Valuable deposits ; supply of coal ; consumption of coal ; high cost of 
coal; importance of the fuel question; peat and its uses for domestic 
purposes, manufacturing and locomotive service ; advantages to result 
from the introduction of peat-fuel ; " cheap fuel " will make Chicago a 
gTeat manufacturing city ; explorations and anticipations. 

Peat in Wisconsin 164 

Peat is abundant ; wood and coal scarce ; characteristics of peat-beds , 
in this region ; Dr. Hayes's report on Wisconsin peat ; calorific power 
and illuminating properties; the " Northern Farmer " on peat; impor- 
tant source of wealth ; more valuable than coal ; cost of manufacture ; 
saves the timber ; worthless marsh lands ate now valuable as coal-beds ; 
money and enterprise are invited. 

Peat in Iowa 168 

Importance of the subject; State Geologist is investigating; lack of 
fuel is a great hinderance to the settlement of the State ; peat offers to 
remedy the difficulty ; letter from Dr. White, State Geologist ; forma- 
tion of peat ; its value ; successful method and machinery for preparing 
it ; lack of timber and coal ; explorations for peat to be continued. 

Peat in Minnesota . ' . . . 170 

What the " St. Paul Press " says ; exhaustless deposits of peat in every 
Northern State ; Minnesota " beats all creation " on peat; peat and pe- 
troleum ; peat machines ; green bass-wood at eight dollars per cord, and 
a hint to " enterprising citizens." 

Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Utah, and Nevada 173 

Rumors and reports of extensive peat deposits; government orders to 
explore, investigate, and report. 

Peat in California 173 

Tula marshes identical with peat ; inquiries instituted. 

Peat in the Manufacture of Iron 173 

Peat can be used economically and profitably ; early experience with 
coal ; peat has been successfully employed in England, France, Italy, 
Bohemia, Bavaria, Westphalia, Wurtemberg, and elsewhere; peat-coke 
is of greater value than best wood-charcoal. Peat preferable for welding, 
fine iron work, &c. ; can be used in puddling and reverberatory furnaces 
and forges, and in blast furnaces ; comparative heating power ; advan- 
tage gained by condensing peat; particulars concerning the use of peat 
in iron works at Konigsbronn, Ichoux, Ransko, Schlackenwerth, Wei- 
herhammer, Magdeberg, Nerecia, and in Italy; comparative cost and 
results ; importance of the subject to France, Germany, and Sweden ; 
extracts from published statements ; iron made with peat charcoal will 
not splinter; peat used in smelting lead; gas furnaces for the treatment 
of metals and glass ; description of the Siemens Regenerative Gas Fur- 
nace, and the practicability of employing peat and other cheap fuels in 
it ; advantages to accrue to certain sections from the adoption of this 
process; establishments now using it; W. E. Newton before Soc. of 
Arts ; experiments and results ; D. K. Clark, C. E., before Brit. Asso. ; 
further experiments, results, and opinions ; iron metallurgists are agreed ; 
tests in Sweden and Germany, at Bolton and Horwich ;. reports of Mr. 
Sanderson of Sheffield, Mr. Fothergill of Oldham, Messrs. Brown and 
Lennox, Professor Emmons, Mr. McDougall, Mr. Campbell, Professor 
Johnson, and Lond. Mech. Mag., embodying tests, experiments, opin- 
ions, and results ; economical use of peat; peat in Austria in puddling, 
reheating, and blast furnaces. 

Peat as Applied for Generating Steam . . . 198 

Use of peat on steamers j Mr. Williams's patents; peat for fireworks, 



CONTENT^. 5 

and lor softening steel ; Mr. Brunton, Mr. Paul, and Professor Em- 
mons ; statements and illustrations; Mr. Nursey before Soc. of Engi- 
neers, on English coal fields ; deposits of peat in Great Britain and Ire- 
land; eost of peat-fuel; qualities superior to coal; experiments on 
steamboat and locomotive, in smelting iron, in puddling- furnace, and for 
producing gaa ; Lond. Meoh. Mag. ; statements and opinions ; peat is the 
only fuel for locomotives in South Bavaria; used on an English rail- 
way ; test at the llorwieh works ; trial on Paris and Lyons R. R. ; no 
smoke, much gas, constant flame; advantages of peat for steam-fuel 
enumerated*; saving of grate-bars and furnaces; trials by Nar. Brick 
Co. on N. Y. Central, Hartford, and Spr., Hud. River, Eastern, and Vt. 
Central, and Grand Trunk railroads, with details of cost and results ; 
trials at East Boston and Lowell ; the fuel is proved to be "good;" 
" the people have to learn how to use it." 

Peat for Domestic Purposes 218 

Importance of observing how to use it ; methods and appliances for 
using it economically and advantageously ; statements and opinions ; 
peat used in Boston and vicinity ; peat for kiudling; peat sold in boxes 
like wood, and in bulk like coal. 

Intensity of Heat generated by Peat .... 221 

Intense heating properties are of special importance : comparative 
composition of fuels ; comparative importance of quantity and intensity 
of heat; reasons for converting coal into coke, and wood into charcoal. 

How to use Peat 223 

Peats differ in quality and characteristics in same manner as woods 
and coals ; stoves, furnaces, grates, drafts, &c, to be adapted ; ap- 
pliances required are simple ; for locomotives and stationary engines ; 
use of fuel dry and partially dried ; progress of economy in the use of 
fuels generally. 

Gas from Peat 230 

Tested jn Europe ; yield equal to coal ; brilliancy and power superior ; 
early experiments ; gas furnaces for iron in France, Germany, Prussia, 
and Sweden ; used at Dartmoor prison ; high illuminating power of 
peat gas and peat oil compared with coal gas ; statements by Mr. Paul, 
Mr. Keats, Mr. Brunton, Mr. Versmann, and Professor Emmons; ad- 
vantages of peat for gas ; importance for gas second only to coal for 
fuel;, tests by Dr. Hayes; experiments at Portland, Utica, Lansing- 
burg, &c. ; retorts for producing it ; quantity, density, and illuminating 
power as compared with gas from coal. 

Peat in Gunpowder and Fireworks 239 

Superior to charcoal from dog-wood and alder : combustion more in- 
stantaneous and perfect ; used in Europe for brilliant colored fires. 

Chemical Products from the Distillation of Peat 240 

Statements by Lord Ashley in 1849; tests by Dr. Hodges; estimate 
by Coffey & Sons, for producing on a large scale; expenditures and 
returns; Professor Brando's opinions ; products of destructive distilla- 
tion ; bleaching properties of peat-charcoal ; Irish Peat Company's opera- 
tions ; B. II. Paul on the manufacture of hydro-carbon oils, paraffine, 
&c, from peat ; analine colors and paraffine candles from peat. 

Analyses and Properties of Peat 247 

Ultimate elements ; chemical products ; reports of analyses ; contents 
of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen ; percentage of ashes ; specific 
gravity and composition of peat ashes ; methods of analyses and distilla- 
tion ; water, tar, charcoal, gas ; ammonia, acetic acid, naphtha, paraffine, 
oils; products estimated by the Irish Peat Company; heating power of 
peat-turf (not condensed) and peat-charcoal; relative calorific power, by 



6 CONTENTS. 

the " Litharge test ; " peat coke compared with coal coke; lead melted 
and water heated ; specific gravity of peats ; peat coke superior to char- 
coal ; calorific value or power of peat coke equal to coal coke — evaporat- 
ing powers of the two nearly equal ; freedom from sulphur ; decided 
superiority for working iron, brass, and copper. 

Tests, Experiments, and Testimony 261 

Statements concerning trials of peat-fuel ; the practicability of using 
it; relative value aud heating power ; purposes for which it may be easily, 
effectually, and economically used; statements and opinions of practical 
and scientific men; miscellaneous tests and statements; peat-charcoal, 
its density and calorific power ; working iron ; generating steam ; for 
domestic purposes ; intensity of heating power; how to use peat ; appli- 
ances for burning peat ; gas from peat ; gunpowder and fireworks ; chem- 
ical products ; analyses and properties ; specific gravity of peat and peat 
charcoal ; how to compare peat with other fuels. 

Peat for Pavements 263 

How prepared with carbonate of lime and coal tar ; resembles asphalt. 

Paper from Peat 263 

Experiments in France and America. 

Peat for Building and Ornamental Work . . 264 

How prepared ; used for ornamental work on buildings, for toys, fancy 
articles, rings, and jewelry; resembles India-rubber. 

Peat for Tanning Leather 265 

Said to possess properties valuable for this purpose. 

Antiseptic Properties of Peat 266 

Remarkable cases of the preservation of human bodies, animals, &c, 
in peat ; quotations from Dr. Rennie and Professor Lyell. 

Peat as a Disinfectant and Deodorizing Agent 269 

Properties well known ;" Chemical Deodorizing Powder" nothing but 
peat; " it is really the abater of every nuisance." 

Peat as a Fertilizer 270 

Its value to agricultural interests ; ingredients, qualities, and proper- 
ties ; analyses ; weight, compositon, and comparative value. 

Ashes of Peat 274 

Value, use, and composition; used for cement and polishing powder. 

Conclusions 274 

The subject is of sufficient importance to command earnest attention 
from the business man and the philanthropist. 

Authorities Quoted 275 



Utilization of Coal Dust with Peat . * . . 277 

A compound fuel of excellent quality, produced at moderate cost, and 
specially adapted for steam service ; method and cost of manufacture ; 
facilities for producing it along the lines of railroad ; saving in cost of 
fuel; report of experiments on "Western Railroad; results and conclu- 
sions ; importance of this invention to mining and gas companies. 



Appendix 287 

Mainly devoted to extracts from newspapers from all sections of the 
country, embracing a great variety of statements and observations, of no 
less interest and importance than those contained in the body of the work, 
and equally worthy of careful perusal and consideration. 



INTRODUCTION 

TO THE THIRD EDITION 



The favor with which the two former editions of this 
compilation of facts were received, far exceeded our 
anticipations. 

That they have been extensively read, we have abun- 
dant evidence, from the universal interest which has 
suddenly been excited upon the subject throughout the 
whole country, more especially in the Northern States 
and Canada, and the demonstrations which are now 
being made, in numerous places, for the manufacture 
of peat-fuel the coming season, on an extensive scale. 

That this will have an important bearing upon the 
prices of fuel generally, and especially upon the 
monopolies in the , coal trade, none can question; 
while as a legitimate business, claiming attention 
through a region of country far exceeding in extent 
our coal-fields, it gives promise of success to a degree 
rarely apparent at so early a stage in any enterprise, — 
and for the one prominent reason above all others, that 
the people have a common interest in it. 

The work is now revised and enlarged for the second 



8 INTRODUCTION. 

time ; and extracts from numerous articles, mostly 
from papers published in different sections of the 
country, showing more clearly than could be done 
from any other source the widely extended interest 
felt in the subject, and the views entertained in all 
parts of the country concerning it ; many of which con- 
tain valuable information of either general or local 
interest, are added in an Appendix. 

Thus far, comparatively few experiments, of which 
we have any accurate reports, have been made with 
peat-fuel in this country ; but the present year will 
doubtless witness many ; and we shall esteem it a 
favor to be informed of such, as much in detail as 
practicable, with a view to incorporating them in our 
next edition, or giving them earlier publicity in some 
other form. 

T. H. L. 

Boston, March, 1867. 



PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OE FUEL. 



Preliminary Remarks. 

"The importance which in every age, from the earli- 
est period of human existence, must have been attached 
to fire, and the necessity which has ever impelled man- 
kind to provide for it, not so much for purposes of 
luxury as an absolute essential to enable them to coun- 
teract the effects of climate, and other external influences 
which affect the human frame, are sufficient, apart from 
any other considerations, to impress every one with a 
sense of its usefulness." 

Nations, however rude or barbarous, have always 
made use of fire as a source of comfort or luxury, as a 
means of preservation, or as a destructive agent. The 
history of its, application in relation to these three objects 
would go far towards illustrating a comprehensive view 
of the advance of civilization. 

It is not in reference to these primary applications, 
however, that the full value of fire, or the extent of its 
influence, will be understood, but only when it is stud- 
ied in connection with the various natural and artificial 
transformations of matter which it tends to produce. 

Not only do the attributes of fire exert a gigantic 
influence in the various social requirements, but in the 
most minute, as well as the most elaborate, changes 
which take place in nature. 

(9) 



10 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Heat and light, indeed, seem to be the life-giving 
principles of the material world, and are not less essen- 
tial to man in subduing matter to his service. 

Some kind of fuel has always been an article of prime 
necessity to man ; at least from the time when he began 
to prepare his food by the heat of fire, or had learned 
to prize its comfortable warmth in the cold of winter. 
As experience was gained in the properties and uses 
of materials about him, the applications of fuel to sup- 
ply his increased wants were multiplied. 

By means of it, clay was converted into better bricks 
than those baked in the sun ; limestone was burned for 
cement ; and the ores were made to give up the valua- 
ble metals which they held concealed with a grip so fast 
that nought but fire could disengage or reveal them ; 
and the subsequent treatment of these for obtaining the 
articles they were fitted to produce was also wholly de- 
pendent on the use of fuel. 

So, from the fruits of the field were obtained, by 
various processes, alike dependent on the combustion 
of fuel, new products, the continued preparation of 
which, in many cases, adds not a little to their value. 
Indeed, most of the operations in the useful arts require, 
directly or indirectly, the application of artificial heat. 

But the comparatively modern discovery of its being 
the most available source of motive-power, has given to 
it a new importance, hardly inferior to that derived from 
its other uses, causing it to contribute more than all other 
resources of nations to their wealth and prosperity. 

It may be said that the political power of the United 
States, Great Britain, France, or any other civilized 
country, is due, not so much to their armies or navies 
— for these are defensive, not productive — as to the 
great development of their manufactures ; and these are 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 11 

in great measure dependent upon an abundant supply 
of fuel, easily procurable, and at cheap rates. 

The means of obtaining this, then, are of chief im- 
portance in every manufacture ; and the questions of its 
supply, preparation, and most economical application, 
are of the highest interest. 

Among the material sources of heat, all the sub- 
stances chemically termed combustible may be regarded 
as particular kinds of fuel, although the name is usually 
restricted to organic products of ligneous origin, such 
as woody matters, peat, coal, and the like. 

The substances usually employed as fuel are wood, 
peat, and coal, either in their natural state, or modified 
by peculiar treatment. 

The abundance of all or either of these in a country 
must always constitute a principal source of its wealth, 
more especially since steam has become the moving- 
power of manufacturing industry, as well as the great 
agent in locomotion. 

It is evident, therefore, that none of the productions 
of nature should be more carefully husbanded than those 
which can be used for fuel. 

Every attempt also to improve the quality of inferior 
materials, so as to increase their efficiency as heat-pro- 
ducers, and consequently their value, should be liberally 
encouraged. 

The term "fuel" is commonly applied only to sub- 
stances originally derived from the growth of plants, 
as wood, peat, charcoal, coke, and the various kinds of 
mineral coal. Even thus limited, it might properly in- 
clude the inflammable gases and oils, which are used 
of late for the sake of the heat generated by their com- 
bustion. 

For objects requiring a quick heat, and at the same 



12 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

time diffused over a considerable space, the most inflam- 
mable fuels are found most efficient. 

The results of numerous experiments, practical as 
well as scientific, go to show that peat, in its rudely 
prepared state, goes far towards answering these re- 
quirements ; and, when solidified, it is for most pur- 
poses superior. 

Wood, peat, and coal, though so different in physical 
appearance, are, nevertheless, very closely allied in 
composition ; all the three being chiefly composed of 
ligneous fibre, a compound of four simple elements — 
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen. 

Physical effects have induced certain changes in some 
kinds of peat and coal, which cause them to differ con- 
siderably in their properties from woody fibre ; but, by 
observing the action which analogous artificial agencies 
exert upon the latter, a remarkable coincidence is ob- 
served ; and sufficient data are found for inferring that 
woody fibre is the basis of these substances ; although, 
in the course of time, they have passed through various 
chemical transformations, differing in some particulars, 
according to locality, temperature, &c. 

The analogy which exists between peat and coal is, 
perhaps, more readily perceived ; and it may reasonably 
be inferred that coal, like peat, has been produced by 
the decomposition of species of organic growth. All 
who have given attention to the composition of the two 
substances, and the geological positions occupied by 
each, seem to concur in this view of the subject. 

It may be said that the process which has operated to 
convert countless reproductions of plants into peat-bogs 
has been similar in the case of coals, to some extent; 
but, geologically considered, it is evident that the oldest 
peat-deposits are of modern formation, when compared 
to the most recent beds of coal. 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 13 

Of the vegetable origin of the former no doubt can be 
entertained : it is apparent to the most casual observer. 
Of a like origin of the latter there can be no more 
doubt, since, among other indications, large masses of 
vegetable forms, and even trees, have been found in 
their natural positions,- converted into coal ; and, in the 
more compact varieties, the microscope has revealed 
conclusively a similar origin. 

MVe do not propose to follow this portion of our sub- 
ject, interesting as it is ; but, leaving geologists to dis- 
cuss and settle disputed points as best they may, and 
referring our readers to papers ad infinitum, which 
have been published upon the subject, we shall take it 
for granted that peat had an origin ; that it exists, and 
is "good," and apply ourselves to practical matters con- 
cerning it. 

Of peat as an article of fuel, comparatively little is 
really known in this country ; although in numerous 
places in the Northern States, especially in the New 
England States, it is now, and has been for many 
years, used to a limited extent, in its crude state, and 
highly esteemed for domestic purposes. The writer, 
during a series of inquiries • and investigations on the 
subject, has often been amused at the warm interest 
manifested by some honest old farmer, as he gave a 
glowing account of the comforts of a rousing peat fire 
on a stinging cold night. When properly cured, it 
burns freely, gives a steady and intense heat, and the 
uniform testimony of those who use it bears witness to 
its superiority in many respects. 

Of wood and coal, in all their variety, the manner 
of preparation, and use as fuel for domestic and man- 
ufacturing purposes, the community may be said to need 
no information : their use is so common and universal 



14 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

that all have constant practical experience of their na- 
ture and value. 

Not so with peat : it is by no means so generally 
used. Its value may be said to be unknown ; and even 
those who have used it, in its crude state, do not appear 
to realize the increased value it would possess, and the 
extent to which it might be used, especially for manu- 
facturing purposes, if properly prepared, and placed in 
the market. 

We have, then, to treat of it, to some extent, as a 
new article ; and, without in any wise attempting or 
pretending to offer all that might be said of it, it will 
be our aim to give briefly such facts in regard to it as 
have come under our own observation, or which we 
have been able to gather from a variety of sources, and 
that with a view to interest the community in the devel- 
opment and use of those rich resources of fuel which 
lie about us, in quantities sufficient for the demands of 
ages, and which require only ordinary enterprise and 
skill, with moderate means, to develop. 

There has been comparatively little published in this 
country upon the subject ; and the experiments made, 
and the results realized, have not been so scientifically 
conducted, nor so accurately reported, as in Europe. 
Much has been done in both countries to demonstrate 
its properties and value ; and it seems to have been a 
common aim of all who have undertaken its manufac- 
ture or use, to condense and solidify it, and put it in 
merchantable shape. 

The number and variety of machines and devices 
which have been invented, patented, or attempted to be 
used, for these purposes, are astonishing ; and, although 
all have agreed that such results were practicable, few 
have actually arrived at anything like a satisfactory 



lMJKLlMIXAKY REMARKS. 15 

method of preparing it ; and none, until recently, so 
far as we are aware, have arrived at that complete suc- 
cess which is essential to the profitable and universal 
introduction of an article of this character. 

It is now apparent that most of the attempts referred 
to have failed of success from the fact that the nature 
of the article was not comprehended ; and the principle 
generally started upon, to wit, that it could be con- 
densed and produced in good merchantable shape by 
means of powerful pressure,, applied in one form or 
another, was wrong. This will hardly be credited ; but 
facts prove it to be the case. 

Peat is a curious substance, possessing peculiarities 
of a very interesting character, some of which will ap- 
pear as we progress in these pages. The fact that it is 
exceedingly elastic, presenting in this respect some of 
the characteristics of India-rubber or gutta-percha, and 
also that it is remarkably tenacious of water, will ac- 
count to some extent for the impossibility of producing, 
by pressure alone, a solid, dry substance. 

A process has, however, recently been discovered and 
applied, by which peat may be converted into a solid, 
dry fuel, in good shape, in large quantities, and at 
moderate cost. It is demonstrated, beyond a question, 
to be a perfect success. 

The machinery is exceedingly simple in its construc- 
tion and operation, and is by no means expensive when 
compared with the amount and value of the fuel pro- 
duced by it. It is now being extensively introduced in 
various sections of the country. Like most inventions 
of the present day, it has been patented ; but it is the 
aim of the parties having the control of the matter to 
encourage and stimulate the manufacture of the article ; 
and to this end they are granting the right to work 



16 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

under their patents, and furnishing the necessary ma- 
chinery and instructions, at rates which are within the 
reach of any enterprising man. 

Of the purposes to which peat as a fuel can be ap- 
plied, and the manner in which it can be used, the 
range is as wide as for wood or coal, or both. 

For domestic purposes, — as the heating of dwellings, 
whether by furnace, or any of the innumerable varieties 
of stoves, or the open grate, — it is equal, if not supe- 
rior, to wood or coal of any kind, save only the fact that 
it requires, in most cases, to be replenished more fre- 
quently than coal ; but it gives a more steady, intense, 
yet mellow and agreeable, heat than any other fuel. In 
open grates, as a substitute for cannel coal, it is admi- 
rable, and produces the most cheerful fire imaginable. 

In manufacturing and mechanical establishments it is 
available wherever fuel is required, and for many pur- 
poses possesses characteristics which render it decidedly 
superior; as, for instance, the production of iron and 
steel, and the working and manufacture of them, where 
the simple fact of the entire absence of sulphur, or any 
substance prejudicial to the quality of the metal, is a 
consideration of immense value. 

For generating steam, it is, when solidified, second 
to no other fuel, and superior to most. It ignites freely, 
burns with considerable flame, gives an intense heat, 
and leaves no residuum, except a fine, light ash, which 
passes off freely, and leaves the grate-bars always free 
and clear, — a consideration which will be readily appre- 
ciated by any fireman or engineer who has had a single 
day's experience with the dross and clinker which is 
inevitable where coal is used. 

A mass of facts have from time to time been pub- 
lished, which go to prove the truth of these statements ; 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 17 

and the few which we shall be able to give in these 
9, and the authorities to which we shall make ref- 
erence, will, we think, satisfy even the most sceptical 
that the subject is at least worthy of investigation and 
experiment. 

If, then, we have at our own doors an article of fuel 
equal or superior to that which we now bring from a 
great distance, and upon which we are, and for many 
years have been, mainly dependent, is it not apparent 
that an immense field for enterprise is open to us, even 
though the actual gain were confined to the single item 

CO © 

of cost of transportation saved ? But it is probably true, 
that, in ordinary times, peat can be excavated, prepared, 
and cured ready for use, at less cost than coal can be 
mined and prepared for shipment. 

Through a very large portion of the territory of the 
Northern States, the deposits of peat are so freely dis- 
tributed that it would probably average as near a mar- 
ket or place of consumption as does the ordinary supply 
of wood now used for domestic purposes. 

For the supply of iron-works, machine-shops, and 
manufacturing establishments, whether for the purpose 
of working the metals or generating steam for power, 
it will, in most cases, be found that deposits of peat lie 
within a short distance of the place of consumption ; 
and, for some of our largest establishments, requiring 
immense amounts of fuel, it is known that supplies of 
an extent equal to their requirements for many years, lie 
almost at their doors. 

So, too, for our railroads peat is the fuel ; it is easily 
handled, ignites almost instantly, burns freely, leaving 
no residuum excepting light ashes, so that the grate- 
bars are always clean, and generates steam in a manner 
to charm the most exacting engineer. 



18 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

There are, along the line of every railroad in New 
England, deposits of excellent peat, equal to their re- 
quirements for years to come ; and it would seem more 
than probable, in view of all these facts, that, within a 
very short time, many of our manufacturing establish- 
ments, and all our railroads, will have each their own 
peat-meadow and fuel-factory ; the practical results of 
which will be, as relates to manufacturing establish- 
ments, either a reduction in cost to the consumer of the 
articles and fabrics produced, or increased dividends to 
stockholders, or both; as relates to metals, and the 
various articles into which they are manufactured, supe- 
rior quality, temper, &c, and a consequent increase 
of value, without increase of cost; and as relates to 
steam-power for transportation by land or water, a dim- 
inution of cost, which may inure, by the reduction of 
rates, to the benefit of the travelling and commercial 
interests, or, without reduction of rates, to the gain of 
stockholders ; or, by such management as may be most ' 
reasonably anticipated, the results would, in all proba- 
bility, prove favorable to the interests of all concerned. 

The subject of peat-fuel will also be found to be of 
vital interest to numerous mining companies, from this 
fact, if from no other, that, in many cases where the 
yield of ores is large and rich, the scarcity, and conse- 
quent high cost, of wood or coal for smelting purposes, 
is such as to preclude the possibility of working them 
at a profit, the expense for fuel being actually, in some 
cases, more than the value of the metals produced. 

Cases similar to the above have already come to our 
knowledge, where, upon examination, abundant depos- 
its of peat have been found in close proximity to mines 
so situated, and which, but for this, must inevitably 
have been abandoned. 



PRELIMINARY REMARKS. 19 

Prof. Emmons remarks, "There is one consideration 
which commends itself to the philanthropic of all our 
large cities ; viz., the introduction of peat as a fuel to 
supply the necessities of the poor. It is believed that 
much suffering may be prevented and much comfort 
promoted by the use of peat in all places where fuel is 
expensive, as in New York and Albany. A careful 
examination, therefore, of places favorable to the pro- 
duction of this substance is a matter of some consider- 
able importance, as it is the next best substitute for the 
more expensive article, coal ; and anything for fuel 
which will save a further destruction of the forests, both 
in New York and the New England States, is worthy 
of adoption, from more considerations than one. A due 
proportion of woodland to that under tillage adds greatly 
to the beauty of any district of country ; but, above 
all, the preservation of timber-lands is becoming a mat- 
ter of great moment, and calls for legislative aid and 
encouragement." He adds, "We have, therefore, in 
this homely substance of peat, an invaluable article, of 
which prejudice alone can prevent a general use." 

Without further preliminaries, w T e will proceed to 
give, briefly, some of the theories or probabilities as to 
the origin and formation of peat, the localities in which 
it is found, the principal varieties, some of the methods 
by which it has been prepared, others, perhaps, which 
have been attempted, some facts as to the manner in 
which it has been used, and the purposes for which it 
has been used, with such other incidental matters of 
scientific or practical interest pertaining to the subject 
as may have come to our knowledge, together with such 
reference to published information as will enable any so 
disposed to pursue the subject to an extent beyond the 
limited space w T hich it is our purpose to devote to it. 



20 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 



Origin and Composition of Peat. 

Peat is the spongy substance, found in almost every 
country, filling up cavities in the surface, and constitut- 
ing what is termed bog. 

It varies in color from light brown to black, and in 
consistency from that of a bran paste to that of clay in 
the bank. 

The natural history of peat has puzzled inquirers a 
great deal ; and explanations of its origin, hardly less 
discordant than those recorded on the subject of fossil 
coal, have been entertained and defended. It is un- 
questionably of vegetable origin, and is the result of 
decomposition to a certain stage, modified or affected by 
the agency of air, water, temperature, time, and pres- 
sure. It was once supposed that this formation was, in 
point of time, coeval with the disposition of the face 
of the country into hills and valleys. By some it was 
considered a bituminous deposit from the sea, — the 
wreck of floating islands previous to the great convul- 
sions which the earth underwent during the formation 
of the present continents and islands. 

By others it was even regarded as an organic sub- 
stance in a state of vitality, and actually growing ; but 
these, and many other notions and theories at times 
entertained, are abandoned, and more rational and 
philosophical views of its nature and production are 
adopted. 

It is found, on examination, to be composed of vege- 
table matters, generally mosses and species of aquatic 
plants, in different stages of decomposition ; and from 
this circumstance, as well as from the general appear- 



ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF PEAT. 21 

ance of the localities where peat abounds, its formation 
is generally accounted for somewhat as follows : — 

Where pools of water collect, the soil under which is 
retentive, the water, not being absorbed, stagnates, and, 
provided the surface evaporation is not great, forms a 
pond. Around the borders of this pond various kinds 
of aquatic plants — sedges, rushes, &c. — soon make 
their appearance, and, by reproduction, gradually creep 
in towards the centre, until the whole surface becomes 
covered. In process of time, when several races of 
these have succeeded one another, and mud and slime 
have accumulated at the roots and around the decaying 
stems, a spongy mass results, which is well calculated 
for the propagation of mosses. 

Under a constant supply of moisture, these various 
species thrive, continue to luxuriate, and, by progres- 
sive growth, ultimately give rise to a composition in 
every respect similar to that constituting the various 
peat-bogs. 

That some such natural process has been the cause 
of the production of peat, appears from its composition, 
and the localities in which it is found. These are chiefly 
in the temperate zones, where evaporation is slow, and 
the atmosphere is generally more or less saturated with 
humidity. 

It may be conceived, that, in the origin of these for- 
mations, the retention of the water, whether from rain 
or springs, in extensive basins, led at first to the de- 
velopment of vegetable growth in the manner above 
indicated ; and that, the necessary moisture being sup- 
plied in abundance, the accumulation became so rapid, 
that ultimately the surface assumed the appearance of 
land ; and, as decomposition proceeded, a degree of 



22 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

solidity was given to the mass, equal to the support 
of denser bodies, such as shrubby plants. 

It would appear that this organic growth was rarely 
restricted to the original basin, but that, as it accumu- 
lated, it spread over adjacent land, which in time became 
a morass. 

Evidence conclusive of this exists in the fact, that 
whole forests of almost every description, such as oaks, 
firs, ash, birch, yew, willow, &c, have been over- 
whelmed in its gradual but steady advancement, and 
are found in all positions at the bottom of peat-bogs. 

Generally this formation is met with in climates of a 
moist nature, in level countries, where imperfect natural 
drainage exists ; although it is found in considerable 
beds in upland districts. 

In mountainous districts, in addition to the impervi- 
ousness of the rock to the moisture, the constant forma- 
tion of clouds upon those elevated regions favors the 
growth of the mosses and plants, the decomposition of 
which contributes to the increase annually of these 
deposits. 

In America, peat is rarely found in these elevated 
positions, and then only in small quantities : but in 
Great Britain, and on the Continent, the deposits are 
numerous and extensive ; and, as a general thing, they 
are esteemed of superior quality for fuel. Instances 
of this kind are frequent in Ireland, Scotland, Northern 
Germany, and Holland, while others are found high up 
the Alps, in the Vosges and in the Jura. 

The extent and depth of the peat-bogs vary consider- 
ably in the different countries where they are found, and 
seem to depend upon circumstances quite distinct from 
each other. 



ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF TEAT. 23 

It is evident that the area which they may occupy is 
intimately connected with the distribution of water. 

Their depth in this country varies, generally, so far 
as we are able to learn, from one to twenty feet : 
though, in some instances, it is reported to be twenty, 
thirty, fifty, and even eighty feet ; but an average of 
the depth of what may be considered our peat regions 
would probably be not far from five or six feet. 

The morasses of Holland and Germany are, to a 
considerable extent, about six feet deep, as are like- 
wise those in upland situations ; while many of the 
peat-bogs of Ireland are from thirty to forty feet in 
depth ; and peat-banks of solid black fuel are exposed 
in some localities to a corresponding height. 

On intersecting these deposits, whatever their thick- 
ness, it appears, from the fact of layers of gravel, clay, 
shells, &c, being interposed horizontally, that, in many 
cases, these tracts have been swept over with currents 
of water more or less violent : such layers, however, 
are never more than a few feet in thickness, and seem to 
have retained all the conditions favorable for the con- 
tinued growth of the plants conducive to the formation 
of peat. 

From its physical constitution, this substance may be 
regarded as a kind of fossil fuel ; and undoubtedly it is 
one of the most extensive sources of fuel known. 

A writer in the "New American Cyclopaedia" says, 
f? The dense, compact peat appears to represent the first 
step in the progressive changes from vegetable sub- 
stances to mineral coal." 

Dana says, "Peat is sometimes entirely converted 
into coal." 

Sir James Hall says, "I have always looked upon 



24 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

the peat of the Old World as one of the principal sources 
of our coal." 

Dr. Maeculloch, from his researches, determined that 
peat is intermediate between simple vegetable matter 
and lignite ; the conversion of peat to lignite being 
gradual, and being brought about in a great lapse of 
time by the prolonged action of water. 

Many bodies are detected in peat, however, which 
are not contained in coal ; although the ultimate ele- 
ments of both are the same. 

Viewing it as the product of the decomposition of 
plants, carried on through a long succession of ages up 
to the present time, it is natural to expect, that, when 
cut vertically, differences should appear. 

Mr. Williams remarks, "I have seen strata of coal 
that bore all imaginable marks of being composed of 
wood : the color, the quality, the stratification, the 
manner of burning, the ashes, and everything else, 
looked like peat." 

Dana says, "In temperate climates, it is due mainly 
to the growth of mosses of the genus sphagnum. This 
plant forms a loose turf, and has the peculiar property 
of dying at the extremity of the roots below, while it 
continually grows and increases above the surface ; and 
by this process a bed of great thickness is gradually 
formed." 

Dr. Rennie says, "No living animal exists in peat ; " 
showing the advanced state of decomposition. 

In almost every instance, this progressive change is 
exhibited ; and, consequently, peat is classed by some 
authorities into recent peat and older peat, from the 
appearance it presents. 

The former bears distinctive traces of its origin in the 



ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF TEAT. 25 

roots, loaves, and stems of plants, the structure of which 
is still retained. 

It is very porous, tough, and elastic in some tracts, 
but in others, especially where the bog is well drained, 
very brittle. 

The color varies, with the character of the vegetable 
growth, the age, and the progress of the decomposition, 
from a light brown to black. 

The latter or K older peat," to which the preceding 
gradually inclines, shows few traces of fibrous matters, 
such as roots, stems, or leaves; but it presents, when 
cut, a pitchy, shining hue, and is dense and fine in the 
grain. 

Preference has always been accorded to this as a fuel, 
from its superior gravity, and the greater heat which it 
produces when undergoing combustion. 

From the change which the vegetable substances pass 
through, it is evident that the usual process of putrefac- 
tion is carried on in the ordinary way, at the commence- 
ment ; but as the surface grows, and contact with the 
air is cut off, the mass is left to the play of the affinity 
of its elements, rendered more active by the steadily 
increasing pressure which it has to sustain. 

The occurrence of peat is frequently indicated by the 
growth of dwarfish evergreens and rank swamp herbage, 
and by the elasticity of the crust which supports them. 

Dr. Rennie remarks, "Though all peat-moss be of 
vegetable origin, yet the situations in which it is formed, 
the plants of which it is composed, and the state in which 
it is found, being different, it is reasonable to expect 
that one moss should differ from another in its appear- 
ance, qualities, and the uses to which it may be made 
subservient. This difference may be detected by the 
naked eye, whether the moss be in the pit, or dug and 



26 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

dried, or burning, or reduced to ashes. The various 
colors that substance assumes, and the external appear- 
ance of it, mark the difference. Some are of a bright 
yellow color ; others brown, or jet black : some are 
composed of a congeries of vegetables in an organized 
state ; in others, few or no traces of organization can 
be seen. Clay, sand, and shells may be detected in 
some ; in others, no such mixture can be discovered. 
Some are soft and greasy like butter, and form a hard, 
brittle, tenacious peat, almost like coal ; others are loose 
and friable like mould. The water squeezed out of one 
moss is of the color of amber ; of another, of claret or 
port wine ; and of a third, as black as ink. In some 
cases this water effervesces with chalk; in others, not. 
Sometimes it leaves a copious sediment by evaporation, 
which is highly inflammable ; in other cases the sedi- 
ment is small, and scarcely inflammable. Some are 
covered with a rich luxuriance of aquatic plants ; others 
are utterly bare, barren, and destitute of vegetables on 
their surface." 

Peat-meadows may be easily probed and examined 
by means of a pole, rod, or tube, thrust through the 
surface, to which the peat, if present, will adhere in 
quantities sufficient to determine something of the char- 
acter of it. A simple instrument, admirably adapted 
to such examinations, may be described as follows : — 

Two pointed half-cylinders, of any metal sufficiently 
strong for the purpose, say twelve inches in length by 
about one or one and a half at their greatest diameter ; 
an exterior and an interior, so arranged, that, when put 
together, the exterior rolls upon the interior, causing 
the whole to present the appearance of a conical or 
tapering cylinder, attached to a handle made of strong 
wood in lengths convenient to carry, and so arranged 



ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF PEAT. 27 

as to be connected at pleasure by means of proper 
joints. The instrument being closed, it is forced into 
the peat to the depth at which the examination is to be 
made ; then, by turning the handle half round, the 
pressure on the exterior cylinder forces it behind the 
interior ; and in this manner the instrument is opened. 
It is then forced downward about the length of the cyl- 
inder, which immediately becomes filled with the soft 
substance ; the handle is again turned half round, which 
closes it, and secures the contents, which may be with- 
drawn and examined at pleasure. 

The tlensity of peat varies with the position in which 
it is found ; with the organic substances from which, in 
different localities, it had its origin ; the character and 
temperature of the atmosphere and climate ; the pro- 
portion of earthy and mineral matters which it contains ; 
and the thickness of the strata. 

Freshly cut, it_is found to be saturated with water to 
the extent of from thirty to ninety per cent., according 
to locality and density ; and even when subjected to 
the ordinary process of air-drying, it will be found to 
have retained a considerable percentage of moisture for 
a long time, even after it has the appearance of being 
perfectly dry ; and it will readily be understood, that, 
beyond a very small percentage, the amount of moisture 
so retained will tend to diminish very considerably the 
heating power of the fuel. 

The degree of decomposition, however, which the 
substance has undergone, is supposed to determine, 
principally, the difference of specific weight in peat from 
the same cutting. 

So highly inflammable are some of the denser kinds 
of peat, that the characteristic distinctions of bitumi- 
nized wood are considered insufficient to explain the 



28 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

circumstance ; and hence the Ince peat of Lancashire is 
believed by some to be penetrated by petroleum from 
bituminous springs. 

Instances of similar character have been reported in 
this country, but without sufficient evidence of the fact 
to render it certain that such is the case. 

In its natural state, peat is highly antiseptic : to which 
may be attributed the long period which is required to 
elapse before the traces of the substances originating it 
are effaced. 

This quality has been further proved by the wood 
which is found without being in the least injured,- al- 
though buried in it to great depths for centuries. Not 
only these, but human bodies, and remains of animals, 
— the latter, in some cases, of extinct species, — and 
other substances prone to putrefaction, have been found 
at great depths in a high state of preservation. 

In the Philosophical Transactions for 1757, mention 
is made of R a stratum of peat on each side of the Ken- 
net, near Xewbury? in Berks, which is from a quarter 
to a half mile in width, and many miles in length. The 
depth of peat is from one to eight feet : and great num- 
bers of entire trees are found lying irreo-ularlv in it. 
These are chiefly oaks, alders, willows, and firs, and 
appear to have been torn up by the roots. Many 
horses' heads, and bones of several kinds of deer, the 
horns of the antelope, the heads and tusks of boars, and 
the heads of beavers, are also found embedded in it. 

Peat always contains some earthy matters in greater 
or less proportion, according to the thickness of the 
stratum, and its position relative to soil in the surround- 
ing reaion. 

Surface peat generally contains less of mineral matter 
than the second and lower strata, which sometimes pos- 



ORIGIN AM) COMPOSITION OF PEAT. 29 

sees so much of these as to render it useless, in point 
of economy, as fuel. 

In this, as well as from the nature of those matters, 
it differs essentially from wood. 

These substances are left, when the peat is consumed 
by open combustion, in the form of ash ; and, from the 
nature of the ingredients, it presents various appear- 
ances, from white to gray and ochrey-red. 

The percentage of ash differs widely, as may be sup- 
posed ; being reported in the statements of numerous 
results, to winch we have had access, all the way from 
one to thirty-three per cent. The better qualities, how- 
ever, or those which may be said to be most used, 
would seem to yield a quantity ranging from three to 
eight per cent. 

The varieties yielding the largest amount of ashes are 
valuable as fertilizers, from the fact that they contain a 
large amount of phosphates, and other salts which serve 
to enrich the soil. 

Copious details of the composition of the ashes of 
many of the peats of Ireland are given by Muspratt, 
in his "Chemistry as applied to Arts and Manufac- 
tures." 

Referring to the odor emitted by burning peat, Dr 
Macculloch says, "It is occasioned by an essential oil. 
That odor may, therefore, be useful for the lungs and 
head. Indeed, there is a traditional opinion among the 
Irish people, that those who use peat-fires are less liable 
to consumption than others." 

Mr. Jameson, in his "Mineralogy of the Scottish 
Isles," remarks that peat is peculiar to cold or cool cli- 
mates ; and thus Nature has provided the means of a 
constant supply, from this source, of the necessities of 



30 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

the people who dwell in those regions, and who contin- 
ually require fuel. 

As we advance towards the warmer climates, vegeta- 
ble matter is more rapidly decomposed ; until, at the 
tropical regions, the putrefaction of animal and vegeta- 
ble matters is so rapid, that it prevents the formation 
of any body of the substance and structure of peat. 

In Scotland, it is observed that the peat at the bot- 
tom of a mountain is more decomposed than that which 
occurs at its top, and that the lignites found in turf 
mosses or bogs are more sound upon the summit of a 
mountain than at its base. 

It is also observed that the peat of the south of Eng- 
land is more decomposed than that of the north of 
Scotland, and the peat of France has more of the coaly 
appearance than that of England. 

Prof. Lyell says, "It has seldom, if ever, been dis- 
covered within the tropics ; and it rarely occurs in the 
valleys, even in the south of France and Spain. It 
abounds more and more in proportion as we advance 
farther from the equator, and becomes not only more 
frequent but more inflammable in northern latitudes ; 
the cause of which may probably be, that the carbon 
and hydrogen, which are the most inflammable parts, 
do not readily assume the gaseous form in a cold atmos- 
phere." 

Darwin states, that, in the southern hemisphere, peat 
does not occur nearer to the equator than latitude 45° ; 
that the composition there met with, results from the 
decomposition of the plants and grasses. The fact that 
no mosses, so far as can be ascertained by strict exami- 
nation, enter into the species of peat found in South 
America, favors this view. 

It would be difficult to say at what period this material 



ORIGIN AND COMPOSITION OF PEAT. 31 

was first applied to its long-acknowledged useful pur- 
poses. That it was used, as it is at present, from a 
very early period of our history; there can be no doubt ; 
and, in the absence of ligneous and mineral fuels es- 
pecially, its great abundance, the comparative ease with 
which it is obtained, and singular production, arrest 
attention to one of those sources of comfort and con- 
venience which an infinitely wise Creator has laid up in 
the storehouse of Nature for the benefit of mankind. It 
is clear that its value for purposes of fuel was early 
understood in Germany ; for Pliny says expressly, that 
the Chauce* pressed together with their hands a kind of 
mossy earth, which they dried by the wind rather than 
by the sun ; and which they used not only for cooking 
their food, but also for warming their bodies. 

Beckmann, in his "History of Inventions," mentions 
a letter of sanction, by which an Abbot Ludolph, in the 
year 1113, permitted a nunnery near Utrecht to dig 
cespites (turf) for its own use in a parf of his vena 
(turf-bog). On the same authority, we are told that 
the words turba, turbo, turbce, and titrfa, occur for turf 
in the years 1190, 1191, 1201, and 1210. The traffic 
in this kind of fuel is recognized in the Leges Burgo- 
rum of Scotland as early as about 1140. Turbaria, 
for a turf-moor, is found in the writings of Matthew 
Paris, who died in 1259. Turbagium is found in a 
diploma of Philip the Fair, in 1308, where its connec- 
tion is such as to signify the right of digging turf. 
Brito, who lived about 1223, is quoted as mentioning 
turf among the productions of Flanders. It may be 
added, that words of like signification occur frequently 
in the earlier foundation charters of the monasteries in 
Germany, as conveying the right to dig turf generally 
within a certain limited extent of ground. 



32 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Pliny (Hist. Nat. Lib. XVLT.) expresses his pity for 
the "miserable people" living in East Friesland and 
vicinity, in his day, who " dug out with the hands a 
moor-earth, which, when dried, they used for preparing 
their food and warming their bodies." 

Charred peat is said to have been used in the Frey- 
berg smelting-houses about the year 1560 ; and mention 
is made of its use for like purposes in England in the 
early part of the seventeenth century. 

Dr. King, an Irish writer, in 1685, says of turf, " It 
is accounted a tolerably sweet fire ; and having very 
impolitically destroyed our wood, and not as yet found 
stone-coal, except in a few places, we could hardly live 
without some bogs. When the turf is charred, it serves 
to work iron, and even to make it in a bloomeiy or iron 
work. Turf charred I reckon the sweetest and whole- 
somest fire that can be ; fitter for a chamber and for 
consumptive people than either wood, stone-coal, or 
charcoal." 

• 

Methods of Preparation for Fuel. 

Where peat-bogs abound, and the inhabitants make 
use of it as fuel for domestic purposes, the process of 
preparation is very simple, and has varied little, if any, 
for ages. 

The surface-layer, or turf, which contains the living 
plants and their roots in the natural state, is stripped 
off to the depth of six, nine, or twelve inches. 

The material is then cut with a kind of spade known 
as the slane, which has a blade about fifteen inches 
long by four and a half inches broad, with a wing on 
the side, bent upwards at right angles to the blade, so 
as to form, with the latter, two sides of a square. 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 33 

With this the peat is cut in long, square masses, and 
laid upon the sward, where it spontaneously loses its 
water, partly by infiltration into the soil, and partly by 
evaporation. 

The tool is worked by the arms alone, and each block 
is cut by a single motion. 

After the blocks are partially dry, having been turned 
at intervals so as to expose the different sides to the sun 
and air, they are found to be reduced very materially 
both in size and weight, and to have acquired a good 
degree of consistency. They are then piled or cobbled 
up in heaps on the sward, care being taken to dispose 
them in such manner as will admit of a free circula- 
tion of air through the mass ; and, after remaining 
exposed in this manner for some weeks, they are gen- 
erally removed to some airy place of shelter, wdiere the 
process of drying may continue, and the fuel be con- 
venient of access when the season arrives for its con- 
sumption. 

Such is the mode generally adopted, both in this 
and other countries, wjien the peat is of sufficient Hen- 
sity and elasticity to bear being so handled without 
breaking. 

When, however, the material is brittle, and will not 
admit of being used in this w r ay, it is dug out with 
ordinary spades and shovels, and all roots, sticks, 
stones, and such like bodies, picked out. It is then 
spread upon the greensward, or, in some cases, upon 
suitable ground covered with a layer of straw or hay, 
in a mass, to the depth of eight to eighteen inches, with 
a breadth of about four or five feet, and to such lengths 
as may suit the convenience of the laborers. In this 
condition it is brought to a homogeneous mixture by 
harrowing, raking, working over with hoes, spades, or 
3 



34 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

other tools, or by the treading of men or animals, until 
it is of about the consistency of stiff mortar, when the 
surface and sides are smoothed, and it is left in this state 
to drain and dry. 

After remaining for one, two, or three days, accord- 
ing to the weather, and acquiring a somewhat greater 
degree of consistency, it is rendered still more compact 
by beating the surface with shovels, spades, or paddles 
adapted for the purpose : and in some parts of Europe 
this is accomplished by treading, which is there mostly 
done by women and children, who attach flat boards, 
about six inches broad, and twelve to fourteen inches 
long, to their feet. 

By this time the peat has acquired such solidity that 
it will bear a person's weight upon it without sinking. 

The surface is then marked off, or cut by the sharp 
edge of a board, or a large knife adapted for the pur- 
pose, to the depth of one or two inches, into squares ; 
the sides of which are from three to six inches, accord- 
ing to the size desired for the fuel when it shall have 
been thoroughly dried, and ready. for use. 

In this condition it is left to dry : and, as evaporation 
proceeds, the squares contract, the cuttings gradually 
open down to the bottom, and the mass is separated into 
blocks of somewhat uniform size, standing on end, and 
of pyramidal form : the base being still quite moist, and 
covering nearly the whole surface, while the top, which 
has been most exposed to air and sun, has contracted to 
nearly or quite one quarter of its original size, and is 
dry and hard. The blocks are then turned once or 
twice, in order to give a more uniform exposure : and 
at the expiration of a few days of good weather, they 
are in condition to be removed, and stored for use : care 
being taken, however, that it be in a sheltered but airv 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 35 

location, and that it be not too closely packed ; for, not- 
withstanding it may have the appearance of being quite 
dry, it will be found to have still retained a very con- 
siderable amount of water, and, if too closely packed, 
is liable to a fermentative process, which injures the qual- 
ity, and has been known to raise the temperature so high 
as to cause spontaneous combustion. 

It is by a process quite similar to this, in most respects, 
that peat lias recently been manufactured at Barnstable, 
Mass., which was sold in considerable quantities in Bos- 
ton during the winter of 1864-5, and met with very 
general favor. 

It was sold in large quantities at $8.50 per ton, and 
retailed at $9.00 per chaldron of thirty-six bushels, $1.00 
per barrel, and 40 cents per bushel. 

Experiments, to a limited extent, were also made with 
it in Boston and vicinity under stationary and locomotive 
boilers, with hig"hly satisfactory results. It cannot, how- 
ever, be recommended for general use for these pur- 
poses, unless solidified to a much greater extent than by 
this method. 

Another simple process, quite common in Holland 
and Ireland, is to take of the mass, after being reduced 
to a uniform consistency, somewhat like stiff mortar, as 
before described, in bulk equal to the size of an ordinary 
brick, and by a rapid process of manipulation with the 
hands, easily acquired and practised, to form it into ob- 
long blocks of somewhat uniform size and shape, which 
are laid upon the ground until such time as they have 
acquired a sufficient degree of consistency to be " cobbed " 
up, or stored for further curing and use, as in the pro- 
cess last before mentioned. 

This is called "hand peat," and is considered some- 
what preferable to either of the other kinds described. 



36 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Two machines for cutting peat are thus described 
by Prof. Johnson : — 

" In North Prussia, the Peat-cutting Machine of Bro- 
sowsky is extensively employed. It consists of a cut- 
ter, made like the four sides of a box, but with oblique 
edges, which by its own weight, and by means of a 
crank and rack-work, operated by men, is forced down 
into the peat to a depth that may reach twenty feet. 
It can cut only at the edge of a ditch or excavation, 
and when it has penetrated sufficiently, a spade-like 
blade is driven under the cutter by means of levers, 
and thus a mass is loosened, having a vertical length 
of ten feet or more, and whose other dimensions are 
about twenty-four by twenty-eight inches. This is 
lifted by reversing the crank motion, and is then cut up 
by the spade into blocks of fourteen inches long by six 
wide and five deep. Each parallelopipedon of peat, cut 
to a depth of ten feet, makes one hundred and forty-four 
sods, and this number can be cut in less than ten min- 
utes. Four hands will cut and lay out to dry twelve 
thousand to fourteen thousand peats daily, or thirty-one 
hundred cubic feet. One great advantage of this ma- 
chine consists in the circumstance that it can be used to 
raise peat from below the surface of water, rendering 
drainage in many cases unnecessary. Independently 
of this, it appears to be highly labor saving, since thir- 
teen thousand machines were put to use in Mecklenburg 
and Pomerania in about five years from its introduction. 
The Mecklenburg moors are now traversed by canals, 
cut by this machine, which are used for the transporta- 
tion of the peat tp market. 

"Lepreux in Paris, has invented a similar but more 
complicated machine, which is said to be very effective 
in its operation. According to Herve Mangon, this 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 37 

machine, when worked by two men, raises and cuts forty 
thousand peats daily, of which seven make one cubic 
foot, equal to five thousand six hundred cubic feet. 
The saving in expense by using this machine is said to 
be seventy per cent, when the peat to be raised is under- 
water." 

He also describes a method of dredging peat, as fol- 
lows : — 

"When peat exists, not as a coherent more or less 
fibrous mass, but as a paste or mud, saturated with 
water, it cannot be raised and formed by the methods 
above described. 

" In such cases the peat is dredged from the bottom of 
the bog by means of an iron scoop, like a pail with sharp 
upper edges, which is fastened to a long handle. The 
bottom is made of coarse sacking, so that the water may 
run off. Sometimes a stout ring of iron, with a bag 
attached, is employed in the same way. The fine peat 
is emptied from the dredge upon the ground, where it 
remains until the water has been absorbed or has evap- 
orated so far as to leave the mass somewhat firm and 
plastic. In the mean time a drying bed is prepared by 
smoothing, and, if needful, stamping a sufficient space 
of ground, and enclosing it in boards fourteen inches 
wide, set on edge. Into this bed the partially dried 
peat is thrown, and, as it cracks on the surface by dry- 
ing, it is compressed by blows with a heavy mallet or 
flail, or by treading it with flat boards, attached to the 
feet, somewhat like snow shoes. By this treatment the 
mass is reduced to a continuous sheet of less than one 
half its first thickness, and becomes so firm that a man's 
step gives little impression in it. The boards are now 
removed, and it is cut into blocks by means of a very 
thin, sharp spade. Every other block being lifted out 



38 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

and placed crosswise upon those remaining, air is admit- 
ted to the whole, and the drying goes on rapidly. This 
kind of peat is usually of excellent quality. In Xorth 
Germany it is called ' Baggertorf, i. e. mud peat." 

Several peat-cutters have been devised, though we 
have seen no published description of any except those 
referred to above. 

Our own experience, confirmed by the testimony of 
others, and by the observations of those who have had 
opportunities to see and investigate where we have not, 
is, that for cutting peat in this country, there is no better 
machine than the simple slane, in the hands of a stout, 
good-natured Irishman, well treated and fairly paid. 

Such a " machine " will easily cut fifty tons crude peat 
per day of ten hours. This statement is often ques- 
tioned ; but the following simple facts and figures will 
be found to demonstrate it, and leave a margin besides. 

The blocks of peat, as ordinarily cut with the slane, 
from a well-drained meadow, weigh from twelve to 
twenty-five pounds — say fifteen pounds, which is less 
than the average. A -man can cut twenty-five or more 
blocks in a minute ; when working " by the job " he will 
cut twenty to twenty-two ; and when working " by the 
day," he does cut fifteen or more. If, then, taking these 
lowest figures, say fifteen blocks of fifteen pounds each, 
we have a result, two hundred and twenty-five pounds 
per minute, or six and one fourth tons per hour, and con- 
sequently sixty-two and a half tons per day of ten hours. 

In order to work a bog which is entirely submerged 
with water, or which is saturated with water to such 
extent that it will not retain its form when cut out in the 
ordinary manner, it is evident that dredging must be 
resorted to. 

A variety of machines for this purpose are in use, 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 39 

some of which we have seen in operation for harbor, 
canal, and river service, but not in a peat-bog ; and our 
own experience lias not been such as to enable us to des- 
ignate the peculiarities of structure requisite to determine 
which would be the best for dredging peat. 

In the "Journal of the Society of Arts," for Novem- 
ber, 1862, was published a paper on "The Utilization 
of Peat," by B. H. Paul, from which we extract a few 
paragraphs : — 

" In one case we find peat deposits in the form of what 
are called peat-bogs, — masses of peat of considerable 
superficial extent, and generally of great depth, — twen- 
ty, thirty, and sometimes upwards of a hundred feet 
deep. 

"In the other case, we find, situated on the slopes of 
mountainous country, peat deposits which are never of 
very great depth, generally from two to twelve feet, and 
where the peat is sufficiently solid to be walked upon 
with ease. In these deposits the peat is of a more uni- 
form texture and character throughout than in bogs, 
although there is always a greater or less difference be- 
tween the peat at the surface and that at the bottom. 
These deposits of mountain-peat are very common in the 
Highlands of Scotland and in some parts of Ireland. 
Mountain-peat offers very much greater facilities for cut- 
ting than bog-peat, and it is generally of much better 
quality ; capable of taking a high polish when rubbed, 
and of a density greater than that of water, the cubic 
foot weighing from fifty-three to seventy-eight pounds. 

" The method of cutting peat in the Highlands of Scot- 
land is very different from that adopted for cutting from 
bogs. After removing the surface-sod, the peat-cutter, 
with a peculiar shaped tool, digs out the peat in slices 
of about a foot square, and three or four inches thick." 



40 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

The process of cutting and curing is given at some 
length, and he proceeds : " When mountain-peat is cut 
in slices, as I have described, and spread out on the 
ground during dry weather, the drying goes on rapidly ; 
the surface of the pieces acquires a kind of skin, winch is 
not wetted again by rain ; and the peat in the course 
of a week is sufficiently hardened to be handled. The 
pieces are then set up on edge, so that the air may play 
on both sides ; and, in the course of six weeks or two 
months, they are dry enough to be stacked or heaped 
up. In the Highlands of Scotland and in the Hebrides, 
on the average, there is rain four days out of six ; and 
it is only during the months of May, June, and July, 
that any continuance of weather favorable for drying 
peat can be expected. It is necessary, therefore, to 
obtain the utmost advantage of that period for drying ; 
and to do so the peat must all be cut before the end 
of May, at latest. On the other hand, if the peat is 
cut during frosty weather, and becomes frozen, it crum- 
bles to powder when the thaw comes ; and for this rea- 
son it is not safe to commence the cutting at all before 
April, or even May. As a rule, it may be said that the 
month of May is the only time available for cutting peat 
in the Highlands of Scotland, and more especially in the 
Hebrides, so as, on the one hand, to avoid the destruc- 
tion of the peat by frost, and r , on the other hand, to 
insure the best possible chance of getting it dried. 

" Two men working together, one cutting and one 
casting the peat, will, in good weather, get through 
what is equivalent to ten tons of dry peat ; so that, if 
they were able to work every day during May, they 
would cut from two hundred to three hundred tons of 
peat ; and, to get ten thousand tons cut and spread, one 
hundred men would be required for the whole month." 



MKT1I0DS OF PREPARATION FOE FUFL. 41 

One essential quality of peat in relation to its value 
as a fuel is its density ; and consequently numerous 
efforts have been made, and various processes have been 
attempted, by which to give it a degree of solidity equal 
or approximating to hard coal, and sufficient to stand 
the blast required for a very high degree of heat in the 
more severe processes of metal manufacture and steam 
service. 

This has generally been attempted by means of direct 
pressure, variously applied, upon the raw material as 
taken from the bogs. Radical difficulties, however, stand 
in the way of effecting the desired condensation by any 
such methods, owing principally to the elastic nature of 
the article itself, increased to a considerable extent in 
all peat of a fibrous character, which causes a distention 
after the pressure is removed. 

None of these methods of pressure alone, have proved 
practically and economically successful. 

We can barely allude to a few of the numerous meth- 
ods by which it has been attempted to condense or so- 
lidify peat, as any extended descriptions of the various 
machines and processes would require space far beyond 
our limits. 

Mr. C. M. Williams, of the Cappoge Works, a gen- 
tleman who has contributed much to the development 
of the industrial uses of peat in Ireland, used powerful 
hydraulic presses, and was able to produce a fair article 
in considerable quantities. It is questionable, however, 
if, in this particular department of its manufacture, his 
endeavors have been remunerative. 

We shall have occasion to refer to him again as we 
proceed with our subject. 

The manner of compressing * as conducted in the Cap- 
poge Works, was to break up the fibre of peat as much 



42 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

as possible, and then to place it, interlaid with coarse 
cloths or cocoa matting, under the pressing machine. 
After remaining under pressure a sufficient time, the 
material was found to be reduced to one third its original 
volume, and to have lost about two fifths of its weight. 

Mr. Cobbold's method is to convert the peat into a 
pulp, with the addition of water if necessary: after 
which, by means of centrifugal power applied to the 
mass, the water is got rid of, and a very dense product 
is obtained. 

The course recommended by Mr. W. B. Stones, as 
described in his patent of March, 1850, is the use of a 
box divided into a number of compartments suited to the 
size of the machine, and pressure to be exerted upon this 
by rollers adapted to one another by means of leverages. 

His claims covered a machine for pressing peat ; a 
process of carbonizing ; the application of carbonic-acid 
gas to the extinction of glowing char-peat ; the employ- 
ment of peat-gas produced during the operation of car- 
bonizing, for the purpose of heating the retorts ; the 
application of a series of receivers to the distillation of 
the residuum, and the obtaining products therefrom ; a 
process of obtaining " peatole " and " peupion " by rec- 
tification ; a process of obtaining " peatine ; " the ap- 
plication of sulphur and peat to the manufacture of 
bisulphuret of carbon, and application of the peat and 
sulphur residuum to the manufacture of gunpowder ; 
the manufacture of artificial fuel from anthracite and 
char-peat ; the impregnation of surface-peat with resin- 
oil, &c, for the manufacture of fire-lighters and reviv- 
ers ; the purification of peat-gas, as described; the 
obtaining of heat and light by the combustion of peat-gas 
in atmospheric air, when a cob or plate of platinum is 
employed ; a peculiar construction of gas-burner, and 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 4o 

application of these burners, for. the purpose of blow- 
pipes, &c. 

At the International Exhibition of 1862, a machine 
was exhibited, which in the official catalogue is described 
as Brunton's ; but it was actually the invention of Mr. 
Buckland, formerly of the Maesteg Iron Works, South 
Wales. 

It consists of a solid obtuse iron cone, having a spiral 
groove on its exterior, and revolving vertically within a 
hollow cone of iron plate, perforated everywhere with 
small round holes just like a colander, which in fact it 
is. The peat is put into the space between the solid 
and hollow cones, and, by the revolution of the former, 
is forced in worm-like form through the holes in the 
latter. 

Thus prepared, it is fashioned into bricks by any 
convenient machine, of .which one was shown at the 
same place. 

The bricks are artificially dried ; and portions of them 
which were exhibited were solid and resisting. 

Peat-charcoal prepared from them was also shown. 

The machine is an ingenious one, and possesses some 
points of interest ; but we do not think it can be made 
practically useful as a mode of manufacture. It has 
run several " experimental trips " in this country ; and 
we have had repeated opportunities to see it in opera- 
tion, and examine it thoroughly. The work is well 
done, so far as it goes. It appears to us, however, to 
require to be run with great care, is liable to get out of 
order, can do its work well only at a low rate of speed,, 
and is equal to the production of but a small amount 
compared with the power required to run it, and can 
therefore be used satisfactorily only by parties who may 
desire to run it "regardless of expense." 



44 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Another method, practised to some extent in Southern 
Bavaria, is, after drying peat in the ordinary manner, 
to pulverize it by passing it through rollers ; then to 
drive off the remaining water by heat, and consolidate 
the dry powder by powerful pressure. 

Mr. C. Hodgson, in a paper read before the Institu- 
tion of Civil Engineers of Ireland, refers to the same 
matter, and describes a process whereby he produces 
from dry powdered peat, an excellent article of solid 
fuel. He employs for its compression an engine pat- 
ented by himself, which he describes as a horizontal 
reciprocating ram, working in a cylinder five feet long, 
with a uniform bore. The powdered peat falls into this 
as the ram draws back at each stroke ; and soon, fill- 
ing the whole length, considerable friction takes place 
against the sides of the tube, before the frictional re- 
sistance of the column is overcome, and the whole mass 
moves on ; so that the blocks formed at one end are 
successively discharged at the other, at the rate of sixty 
a minute, making in an hour about fifteen cwt. of com- 
pressed peat, equal in density to coal. This apparatus 
was recently in operation at Derrylea, near Monastere- 
van ; and it is said by the inventor to leave no doubt 
of the practicability of producing diy compressed peat 
on a large scale, and with profit. 

Messrs. Gwynne & Co. have taken out several pat- 
ents for the preparation of peat-fuel. One of their 
processes bears some resemblance to the method last 
described. The peat, as dug from the bog, is deprived 
of much of its moisture by being placed in a large cen- 
trifugal machine ; after which it is ground to powder, 
and passed through a series of cylinders revolving in a 
heated chamber, where the remaining moisture is got 
rid of, and the powder raised to the proper temperature 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 45 

for compression. From the last cylinder it is carried 
by pockets to the compressing tables ; and, having 
passed through them, the solidified peat is ready for 
use. It is found that when the peat-powder has been 
dried at a temperature of about 180°, and in that state 
allowed to enter the hopper of the compressing engine, 
the tarry properties of the turf are just sufficiently de- 
veloped to form a good cementing compound ; and the 
brick of compressed turf, when cold, forms a dense and 
very pure fuel. 

In Austria, as well as in some parts of Germany, a 
process prevails, to some extent, of grinding the peat 
as rags are ground in a paper-mill, reduced, by the ad- 
dition of a great deal of water, to a very fine and soft 
pulp, which is then placed in tanks, basins, or other 
suitable receptacles, where, by filtration and evapora- 
tion, it is, after a considerable time, relieved of most 
of the water, and, when of the consistency of cheese, 
can be cut or broken up and stacked for use at a still 
later day. 

The product is excellent, but the process is slow, 
tedious, and expensive, and by no means adapted for 
general use. 

At Horwich, in Lancashire, England, works have 
been erected which are reported as being operated suc- 
cessfully, and are said to be well conducted, and to 
produce an excellent article of fuel. 

The peat, as it comes from the bog, is thrown into a 
mill arranged for the purpose, by which it is reduced to 
a homogeneous, pulpy consistency. The pulp is then 
conveyed, by means of an endless band, to the mould- 
ing machine, in which, while it travels, it is formed into 
a slab, and cut into blocks of any required size. The 
blocks are delivered by a self-acting process on a band, 



46 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

which conveys them into the drying chamber, through 
which they travel forwards and backwards on a series 
of endless bands at a fixed rate of speed, exposed all 
the time to the action of a current of heated air. The 
travelling bands are so arranged that the blocks of peat 
are delivered from one to the other consecutively, and 
are by the same movement turned over in order to ex- 
pose fresh surfaces, at regular intervals, to the action 
of the drying currents ; so that they emerge from the 
chamber dry, hard, and dense. 

The next stage in the process is the treatment of the 
peat in close ovens, when it may either be converted into 
charcoal for smelting purposes, or maybe only partially 
charred for use as fuel for generating steam, or in the 
puddling furnace. 

In a paper recently read before the British Associa- 
tion by D. K. Clark, C. E., a somewhat detailed ac- 
count of these works was given, extracts from which 
will be found in the Appendix to this work. 

Prof. Johnson, in his narrative of peat operations in 
Europe, describes the Mannhardt and JSFeustadt meth- 
ods, by which the crude peat in its moist state is passed 
between rollers, being reduced somewhat in bulk, and 
delivered in soft blocks or sheets, after which it is re- 
moved to the spreading-ground or sheds to be dried ; 
also the Lithuanian, Exter's, and Elsberg's, which in 
their main features correspond with that of Gwynne, 
described above ; Ver&mann's, which is almost identical 
in principle and construction with Buckland's, already 
described, on page 43, and Chcdleton's, Siemens', 
Weber's, Gysser's, and Schliclceysen's, which, by meth- 
ods similar in principle, but varying somewhat in the 
detail of construction and operation, pulp the crude 
peat, in some cases adding to it a considerable amount 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 47 

of water, and deliver it in moist blocks, to be dried 
either in kilns or in the open air. 

The advantages claimed for Hodgson's, G Wynne's, 
Exter's, Elsberg's, and the Lithuanian methods, are, 
that the expensive transportation and handling of fresh 
peat, containing a large amount of water, is avoided, 
and that enough peat may be air-dried and stored dur- 
ing summer weather to supply a machine with work 
during the whole year. 

It is evident, however, that the "fresh peat containing 
a large amount of water " must be handled and dried at 
some stage of the operations ; and experience has demon- 
strated beyond a question that a thousand tons of crude 
peat, as it lies in the bog, can be taken out, manufac- 
tured, and dried after it has been manufactured, in less 
time and at less cost for labor than the same amount 
can be taken out, dried before being manufactured, and 
then formed into blocks, as practised by this method ; 
yielding, moreover, a fuel of superior character in its 
mechanical composition. 

Of this method of dry pressing, Prof. Johnson re- 
marks, "Its disadvantages are, that it requires a large 
outlay of capital and great expenditure of mechanical 
force. Its product is, moreover, not adapted for coking. 
"When wet, the surface of the cakes swells up, and exfoli- 
ates as far as the water has penetrated. In the fire a 
similar breaking away of the surface takes place, and 
when coked the coal is but moderately coherent. 

" The idea that heat develops bituminous matter (in 
the process of manufacture) , or fuses the resins which 
exist in peat, and that these cement the particles, does 
not harmonize with the fact that the peat thus condensed 
flakes to pieces by a short immersion in water." 

A correspondent from Austria writes as follows : — 



48 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

"Referring to the preparation of rough peat, there 
are five kinds in Germany and Austria. 

"1. The fibrous peat is picked out and dried in 
the air. 

"2. The earthy peat is digged out, stricken to tiles, 
and dried in the air. 

" 3 . The peat is ground and put into a great deal of 
water, in which the peat forms by itself a very strong 
cake. 

" 4. The peat is handled like by your mannei*: 

" 5. The peat is ploughed like a field, then heaped up 
and carried on railroads to the factory. It is ground 
like rags ; then it runs through a spiral, which is heated 
on the outside by steam or smoke of a far fire for a 
boiler ; the hot peat falls immediately into the press, 
where it is pressed to very strong pieces, about seven 
inches long, three inches wide, and only half an inch 
thick. This manner patented for Mr. Exter in Mu- 
nich." 

These will, perhaps, serve to illustrate .the general 
characteristics of an infinite number of methods pro- 
posed and machines devised for improving the quality 
of peat fuel, so as to remove or overcome its character- 
istic fault ; namely, want of density ; and its treatment 
for other products. TTe shall have occasion to refer to 
these again, and perhaps to mention others as we pro- 
ceed. 

In this country comparatively little has been done ; 
and until quite recently no machinery whatever, spe- 
cially constructed and adapted for the production of 
solid fuel from peat, has been put in practical operation. 
The impression has seemed to prevail, that the material 
is to be treated like clay, and that brick-machines might 
be readily made to work the desired results ; but the 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOE FUEL. 4 ( .) 

idea is erroneous. Numerous brick-machines have been 
tried, some of them very ingeniously and perfectly con- 
structed, and which have been demonstrated to be almost 
perfect in their operation upon clay, but have proved an 
entire failure when peat was substituted instead. It is 
true, however, that, with two or three of these machines, 
peat has been pressed into compact blocks, having the 
appearance of great solidity ichen moist; but so soon 
as the moisture is evaporated, as it will inevitably be 
in time, the mass is found to be porous and light. 

Quite a number of presses, some of them exceedingly 
ingenious in device and construction, and powerful in 
their operation, and supposed to be so aranged as to 
press the water out of the mass, and leave the material 
compact and nearly or quite dry, have been built and 
tested, with failure of success as a uniform result; and 
although the records and reports of such cases, both in 
Europe and this country, are sufficiently extensive to 
explode the idea that any profitable results can be ob- 
tained by pressure alone, there are, nevertheless, those 
who are still persistent in their efforts to accomplish it 
by such means, and are now devising new methods of 
applying powerful pressure, which, were they to con- 
sider but for a moment the nature of the material in its 
crude state, would be seen at once to be clearly of no 
avail. The famous Beater Press, which within a few 
years has acquired great notoriety, and is probably the 
most powerful press now in use for hay, straw, cotton, 
tobacco, &c, has been tried several times in New York 
and Massachusetts, by parties sanguine of success, but 
with only the same results as with other presses. 

A multitude of experiments have been tried, and all 
sorts of machines devised, but, in most cases, by parties 
who, it would seem, have failed to comprehend the 
4 



50 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

nature of the material, have consequently gone to work 
in the wrong way to obtain results, and, as a matter of 
course, have, in the majority of cases, been unsuc- 
cessful. 

So much interest has been had in the matter within 
the past year or two, that several parties in different 
sections of this country, each in their own way, have 
been at considerable expense to develop it ; but in nearly 
all of the cases, we hear, thus far, only of larger expen- 
ditures without the desired results in product or profit. 
We hear of these experiments on Long Island ; at Nyat, 
near Providence, R. I. ; at Schenectady, Poughkeep- 
sie, Syracuse, Oswego, Rochester, and Pekin, N. Y. ; 
at Belleville, N. J. ; and Springfield and Worcester, 
Mass. In some of these cases, brick-machines have 
been used, as before mentioned ; in others, as at Nyat 
and Pekin, the peat is reduced to a mass of about the 
consistency of mortar, spread upon the ground, cut 
into blocks, and left to dry and cure in the open air : in 
this manner a very fair article is made, and can be pro- 
duced in considerable quantities, and probably at no 
great expense. 

At Lexington, Mass., operations were commenced in 
1864, under the patents of Ashcroft and Betteley, and 
have been continued during three seasons. Their pro- 
cess, as claimed, provides for separating the fibrous 
from the thoroughly decomposed portions of the peat 
by combing ; in doing which the mass is reduced to a 
pulp, which is then conveyed into high tanks, where it 
is proposed to allow it to remain, until, by its own 
weight and pressure, it shall have become sufficiently 
dense to be formed into blocks, when, by opening a 
small gate near the bottom of the tank, it is presumed 
that the pressure of the superincumbent mass will force 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOli FUEL. 51 

it out in a continuous sheet of uniform size, as regulated 
by the orifice, which may then be cut in blocks, and 
laid away to dry. This, as we understand it, is the 
theory. 

They have also experimented considerably upon a 
method of drying the peat by absorption ; the plan being 
to cover the spreading ground with a layer or pavement 
of porous brick, arranged in convenient manner, on 
which is spread the soft pulp as it comes from the 
machine. The brick, if dry, will undoubtedly absorb a 
portion of the moisture from the under side of the ma^, 
while evaporation is going on from the top ; but it is 
equally obvious that the bricks will unavoidably absorb 
from the earth, gravel, or sand, on which they are laid, 
a very considerable amount of moisture, and that this, 
with an occasional shower, would do much towards keep- 
ing them so well filled with water, that they could not 
be expected to be in fit condition for effectual service 
in the manner intended, except for occasional and lim- 
ited periods. The expense to be incurred for paving 
an area sufficient to meet the requirements of a large 
establishment woidd be more than for buildings and 
machinery. 

If an absorbent is to be used at all, it should be con- 
stantly available and comparatively inexpensive. 

Operations at these works have been prosecuted vig- 
orously, a great deal of expensive machinery and appa- 
ratus has been built, a variety of experiments have been 
tried, some good fuel has been produced, and a large 
amount of money has been expended ; but we do not 
learn that the desired results have yet been attained. 

The machinery set up at Pekiu, N. Y., in 1865, is 
the invention of Mr. M. S. Roberts, who is the owner 
of a very considerable tract of excellent peat-land in 



52 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

that place. The following description of it is from the 
"Buffalo Express," of Nov. 17, I860: "In outward 
form, the machine was like a small frame house on 
wheels, supposing the smoke-stack to be a chimney. 
The engine and boiler are of locomotive style ; the 
engine being of thirteen-horse power. The principal 
features of the machine are a revolving elevator and a 
conveyer. The elevator is seventy-five feet long, and 
runs from the top of the machine to the ground, where 
the peat is dug up, placed on the elevator, carried to the 
top of the machine, and dropped into a revolving wheel 
that cuts it up, separates from it all the coarse particles, 
bits of sticks, stones, &c, and throws them to one side. 
The peat is next dropped into a box below, where water 
is passed in, sufficient to bring it to the consistency of 
mortar. By means of a slide under the control of the 
engineer, it is next sent to the rear of the machine, 
where the conveyer, one hundred feet long, takes it, 
and carries it to within two rods of the end ; at which 
point the peat begins to drop through to the ground to 
the depth of about four or five inches. When sufficient 
has passed through to cover the ground to the end of 
the conveyer, — two rods, — the conveyer is then swung 
round about two feet, and the same process gone through 
as fast as the ground under the elevator, for the distance 
of two rods in length and two feet in width gets cov- 
ered, the elevator being moved. At each swing of 
the elevator, the peat just spread is cut into blocks 
(soft ones, however) by knives attached to the elevator. 
It generally takes from three to four weeks before it is 
ready for use. It has to lie a week before it is touched, 
after the knives pass through it, when it is turned over, 
and allowed to lie another week. It has then to be 
taken up, and put in a shed, and within a week or ten 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOIl FUEL. 53 

days can be used, although it is better to let it remain a 
little longer time. The machine can spread the peat 
over eighteen square rods of ground — taking out one 
square rod of peat — without being moved. After the 
eighteen rods are covered, the machine is moved two 
rods ahead, enabling it to again spread a semicircular 
space of some thirty-two feet in width by eighteen rods 
in length. The same power which drives the engine 
moves the machine. It is estimated by Mr. Roberts, 
that, by the use of this machine, from twenty to thirty 
tons of peat can be turned out in a day." Four men 
are required to run it. The cost of this machine is 
stated at twenty-five hundred dollars. 

In this case, as in several others which have come to 
our notice, it is observed that the method proposed 
requires that a very considerable quantity of water be 
added to the already moist material, before it can be 
treated or formed ; whereas a great desideratum has 
ever been to discover some process by which it might 
be discharged of the very large amount of water which 
all peats contain in their natural state. 

Mr. James Hodges, of Montreal, after considering 
the many difficulties in the way of manufacturing peat 
successfully, conceived the idea of a manufactory com- 
plete, which might be made to float about in the bog, 
excavating, pulping, manufacturing, and spreading out 
the pulped peat to dry, until some seventy per cent, was 
evaporated, or it was fit for carriage to the store or to 
market. After three years' experience, he has arrived 
at the conclusion that it may be effected in the follow- 
ing manner : — 

"An extensive undrained bog, from eight to twelve 
feet in depth, — or, if deeper, the better, — having 
been selected, the first process is to trace out, at some 



54 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

distance from the margin, a contour level line of say 
several miles in extent. Along this line, a space of 
some nineteen feet in width must be cleared, and the 
live moss or turf entirely removed : by the side of this 
a space ninety feet in width is to be cleared and drained 
to receive the pulped peat. 

"At one end of the contour line before-mentioned, a 
barge or scow eighty feet long, sixteen feet beam, and 
six feet deep, must be constructed, and launched into a 
hole dug in the bog to receive her. The barge or scow 
is to contain all the machinery necessary for the com- 
plete manufacture of the peat. 

"At one end of the scow are placed a pair of large 
screw augers eleven feet in diameter, which, being pro- 
vided with proper shafting and gearing, are made to 
revolve by means of a steam engine placed on the rear 
of the vessel. These augers or screw excavators bore 
out the peat in precisely the same manner that a com- 
mon auger bores itself into wood ; and the scow being 
made to move onwards as the boring proceeds, it fol- 
lows that a canal nineteen feet wide, of from four to 
six feet deep, is formed, in which the scow, with her 
burden of machinery, floats, the water from the adja- 
cent peat draining into and filling the canal as fast as 
it is made ; the usual speed of the scow being some 
fifteen feet per hour. 

" A competent engineer should determine and lay out 
the canal level, as well as arrange its water supply, upon 
which depends in a great measure the successful work- 
ing of the whole. 

" The peat, when bored out or excavated by the screws, 
is delivered into the barge, and conveyed by means of 
an elevator to a hopper, into which it is tumbled. It 
then passes through machinery which removes all sticks 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 55 

and roots, and, eventually destroying the fibre, reduces 
the peat to a homogeneous mass of soft pulp, like well- 
tempered mortar. 

" This pulp then passes into a long spout or distribu- 
tor, which, extending at right angles over the side of the 
scow, spreads out the pulp upon the levelled moss by 
the side of the canal, in a thin slab nine inches in thick- 
ness and ninety feet in width. 

" After the slab of pulp has been deposited for a couple 
of days, or in hot weather for a shorter period, it begins 
to consolidate, and show symptoms of cracking. Im- 
mediately any cracks make their appearance, it must be 
marked- out by drawing a framework, carrying curved 
knives, placed six inches apart, across it. A few days 
more hardens the pulp, so that by the aid of boards a 
man can walk on it, and mark it longitudinally with 
cuts eighteen inches apart. 

" In about a fortnight the shrinkage of the pulp-slab 
causes the cuts made in it to open, and the whole pre- 
sents the appearance of an immense floor covered with 
bricks eighteen inches long by six inches wide. As 
soon as the bricks are sufficiently hard to bear handling, 
they are separated and " footed ; " that is, stood up on the 
ends, five in a stook, with one across the top, in which 
position they remain until dry enough to be removed to 
the store or to market. 

"In the manufacture of peat-fuel considerable ex- 
perience is required, and unless attention is paid to 
matters of detail, apparently of little importance, serious 
loss may be the result. 

"In forming or uncovering the canal track, nothing 
more is required than that the turf or live moss, about 
six inches in thickness, together with the roots of all 
trees upon the surface of the bog, should be removed ; 



56 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

and, as upon all undrained bogs, the roots of such stunted 
trees as grow there are all on the surface, this operation 
is easily accomplished. 

"In the preparation of the pulp-beds great care is 
required, and a surface should be obtained as level 
and even as possible. The roots of all trees must be 
removed; and this is more readily accomplished with 
the trees themselves, by which means considerable labor 
may be saved, one man pulling them down on one side, 
while another with an axe cuts the lateral roots at some 
distance from the stem, leaving the smaller portions 
behind. The long grass, shrubs, and rank mosses are 
cut down with a short scythe, and used in filling up 
any irregularities on the surface. Drains from nine to 
twelve inches deep should also be cut and covered over 
with the spare turf taken from the canal track. The 
soil from the drains may also be used in levelling and 
filling up inequalities in the pulp bed. In some places 
where the growth of shrubs has been very rank and 
coarse, the turf upon the whole surface of the pulp-beds 
has been cut into strips and inverted ; but it is better 
to cut drains, and leave the turf in its natural position. 
The soft pulp, when poured upon it in a semi-fluid 
state, advances, lava-like, pressing down any small 
branches of shrubs and the long grasses which may be 
standing in the way of its onward progress. 

"The pulp should not be deposited nearer than five 
feet of the canal, and upon this space may be placed 
any surplus moss or turf from the uncovering of the 
canal track, which will not only keep the pulp in place, 
but also form a road and towing-path for the canal. 
At the rear, or ninety feet from this bank, a double 
thickness of turf is all that is necessary to complete the 
pulp-beds. 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 57 

" The canal track and pulp-beds being prepared, and 
the scow with its machinery in position, nothing more 
is required than to set it in motion, giving the necessary 
feed, say one and a half inches for each revolution of 
the screw excavators, which may be increased to three 
inches or more if necessary. As the screws revolve, 
they cut off continuous slices of the peat, which, by the 
assistance of a couple of men, are delivered through 
the rear of the shield the screws work in, into a well in 
the bow of the scow. These men also remove any 
large masses of extraneous material, such as pieces of 
wood, roots of trees, &c, which may work in. It is 
sometimes required, when working in peat which is 
very full of roots, to have a man placed in front to 
remove them, as they are brought up by the knives of 
the screws, roots as much as a man can lift being occa- 
sionally excavated. 

" After the peat is delivered into the well, it is carried 
by means of an elevator and tumbled into a hopper, 
from which it passes through the stick and fibre catcher, 
the pulping and distributing trough, without any assist- 
ance whatever, it being only necessary to see that the 
stick catcher is kept clear, and occasionally, when the 
pulp is too stiff or dry, to turn on a pump until it is 
reduced to a proper consistency. 

" The levelling of the pulp should be done as evenly 
and as smoothly as possible. A few days' experience 
will enable any intelligent man to accomplish this ; and 
upon its being well done depends, in some measure, 
the quality of skin upon the peat, so essential, not 
only in shedding the rain and preventing cracking from 
the sun, but also for giving a permanent toughness to 
the bricks. 

"The crew of the scow, all told, will number six, in- 



58 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

eluding the master, who keeps the knives of the screw 
excavator clean, and sees that all is 1 going on right; 
two men at the screw excavators, one engine-man, one 
man levelling the pulp, and one man to attend to the 
stick-catcher and the pulping-spout. 

" The marking of the pulp-beds into transverse cuts, at 
six-inch intervals, is proceeded with as soon as the pulp 
begins to set, or becomes so tough that when the incisions 
or cuts are made in it by the knives, they do not re-unite. 
The operation is performed by two men, one on each 
side of the pulp-bed, who, by means of a rope, pull a 
framework of wood, carrying curved knives, to and fro 
across the bed. A little practice enables them to per- 
form the work with great accuracy. The longitudinal 
cuts, eighteen inches apart, are made as soon as the 
pulp is sufficiently hard to bear the weight of a man 
upon a plank laid on its surface. It is performed by 
pushing a circular plate of iron, which, cutting like a 
circular saw, severs the peat to the very bottom. In 
making these last cuts, care should be taken that they 
go quite through the peat, so that surface water from 
rain may freely pass off through the drains in the pulp- 
beds into the canal. 

" Upon the state of the weather depends the time when 
the next operation should be performed ; but, if the pulp- 
slab, when first spread out, is not more than nine inches 
in thickness, ■ — which it should never exceed, — then a 
fortnight will be ample time to harden the bricks for 
footing. 

"The footing is done by gangs of men and boys, 
one man and three boys working together : the man, 
using a suitable tool, separates the bricks, which the 
boys foot, or place in groups or stooks of five ; four 
stand on their ends, inclining to each other, with their 



METHODS (>V PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 5 li 

tops touching, the iifth being balanced horizontally upon 
them. A man and three boys will foot four thousand 
bricks in a day. 

" After the bricks have been exposed to the weather for 
a few days, they should be refooted or turned, two boys 
handling four thousand as a day's work. 

R Nothing now remains to be done but to wheel the 
bricks, when sufficiently dry, into barges, and convey 
them to the store." 

Mr. Hodges' plan of operations is rather extensive, 
not to say immense ; but he has had — what at this stage 
of affairs we should rarely expect to see — the requisite 
enterprise, energy, and perhaps the location and pecuniary 
means to carry it out, and has made clear and convin- 
cing statements of results attained, which are of great 
importance as demonstrating the comparative value of 
this fuel. We have been favored with reports of some 
of these, which will be found on subsequent pages, under 
the heads of " Steam " and " Iron." 

Several trips with his fuel were made over the Grand 
Trunk Railway, which were all attended with marked 
and satisfactory results, so decided in their character 
that a contract has been entered into, extending over 
five years, or seasons, during the first of which the 
company are to take one hundred tons per day, and 
during the four succeeding seasons three hundred tons 
per day. 

Dr. Louis Elsberg, of New York city, obtained a 
patent, in 1864, for a process of grinding and compacting 
dry peat, which in its essential features appears to cor- 
respond very nearly with the Lithuanian, Hodgson's, 
Gwynne's, and Exter's, already described on pages 44, 
45, 46 ; and the remarks in connection with those would 
seem to be equally applicable* to this, so fnr as we are 



60 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

able to judge from our own observations and the con- 
current testimony of others. His experimental works 
are at Belleville, X. J., and the fuel produced is in good 
shape and very dense. 

The Boston Peat Cotmoany have adopted the process 
and machinery invented by T. H. Leavitt, of Boston; 
and they are in successful operation. 

The process is exceedingly simple, rapid, and suc- 
cessful : the machinery is equally simple, and works 
"to a charm." It is compact, and of moderate cost: 
and the results obtained in the quantity, quality, and 
cost of the fuel produced, exceed the most sanguine ex- 
pectations of the inventor, and have met the unqualified 
approval and commendation of all who have examined 
the machinery or the fuel. 

The machinery consists of a strong tank, or cistern, 
three feet in diameter and six feet high, supported upon 
a stout framework, about four feet above the floor of a 
suitable buildins;, which should be near the bos;, and is 
best constructed on a hill-side, so that easy access can 
be had to the lower story on one side, from the base of 
the hill, and to the second story on the other side. The 
top of this tank is open, and even with the floor of the 
second story. Within the tank, and firmly fixed to its 
sides, are numerous projections of a variety of forms, 
adapted to the treatment of the material in its several 
stages as it progresses through the mill, which is divided 
into three apartments : through the centre of the tank 
revolves an upright shaft, to which are affixed knives 
and arms varying in form and structure to correspond 
with the stationary projections in each apartment ; below 
the tank is a receiver, or hopper ; and under this is a 
moulding or forming machine, two feet in width and 
twelve feet Ions;, of liko simple construction, which 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOK FUEL. 01 

receives the condensed material from the hopper, and 
delivers it in blocks of an}- desired form and size. The 
whole is adapted to be driven by a small steam engine, 
and requires about six and ten horse power, respectively, 
for the two sizes of machines, as at present constructed, 
of the capacity of fifty and one hundred tons each of 
crude peat per day of ten hours. 

The crude material is brought from the bog in ordi- 
nary horse-carts, or on small cars running over a cheaply 
constructed tramway, to the mouth of the mill, in the 
floor of the second story of the building, where it is 
dumped or shovelled into the mill in any convenient 
quantity ; but the arrangement is such that only a given 
amount is admitted and under treatment at any one 
time, so that all parts have a uniform and regular sup- 
ply. The treatment is such that the original organiza- 
tion of the peat is entirely destroyed ; in the second 
stage, the air, of which a large amount is contained in 
its cells, is ejected : advantage is taken of some of the 
natural properties of the material, and the mass is con-, 
densed in its moist state in the lower part of the mill, 
from whence it is delivered into the hopper of the 
moulding machine, and is discharged in a continuous 
line of moulds (which are fed into the rear part of the 
machine by a boy), at the rate of from fifty to one 
hundred tons per day of ten hours. The work of re- 
moving the blocks to the spreading-ground is easily 
accomplished ; and they are exposed in the open air, 
for drying, in much the same manner as bricks are 
exposed in a brick-yard. 

The amount of water contained in well-drained peat 
is ordinarily from 65 to 75 per cent., varying according 
to the character of the material and the drainage of the 
meadow ; so that the weight of dry, hard fuel from the 



62 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

product of a day's operations, is from 12 to 17 tons, or 
25 to 35 tons, from the two sizes of machines, respec- 
tively, — the cost of which, by this process, to place it on 
the spreading-ground, at present prices of labor ($1.75 
per day), is less than $1.50 per ton ; to which may be 
added 50 cents per ton for turning the fuel while drying, 
and for housing it ; making the entire cost $2 or less. 

The water remaining in the blocks as they come from 
the mill can be got rid of, only by evaporation, which 
goes on very rapidly after this method of treatment ; and 
the fuel is, at the expiration of about eight or ten days, 
— sometimes in four or five, — in condition to be housed, 
or transported to market. 

The cost, as stated above, is for the product of one 
set of machinery ; but where several machines are to be 
operated, and the business is conducted on an extensive 
scale, the cost, pro rata, is very much reduced, as one 
man can easily superintend the operation of several 
machines, the laborers generally can be employed to 
better advantage, and numerous mechanical appliances 
to save manual labor and expedite the operations, which 
it would not be advisable to construct where a single 
machine only was to be run, may be economically in- 
troduced on more extensive works ; and in this manner 
the expense may be very considerably reduced, some 
have estimated as low as one dollar per ton. 

The parties interested in this latter enterprise have 
been diligently pursuing the matter for a long time, 
firmly convinced of the value of the article, and of the 
practicability of producing it, in marketable shape, in 
large quantities, and at moderate cost ; and are content 
that the merits of their machinery, and the value of the 
product as an article of fuel, should stand upon the test 
which each observer or consumer may choose to apply. 



METHOD OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 63 

Their inventions are secured by letters-patent, and the 
process can be seen in operation at their works, at East 
Lexington, Mass. 

Their purpose is to encourage the manufacture of peat 
wherever it is found ; and to this end they furnish ma- 
chinery, and rights under their patents, at moderate 
rates. 

The following is a liberal estimate of the cost of an 
establishment for running a Leavitt machine of the capa- 
city of one hundred tons crude peat per day, estimating 
labor and material to command about the prices which 
rule at the present time, 1867, which are high : — 

One machine, as above, $1,500 

Engine and boiler, 12 horse, 1,200 

Shafting, belting, and fixtures, 500 

Buildings, roughly constructed, ...... 1,000 

Incidentals, 300 

$4,500 
Or for a better establishment, as follows : — 

One machine, as above, $1,500 

Engine and boiler, 12 horse, 2,000 

Shafting, belting, and fixtures, 500 

Buildings, 2,000 

Incidentals, 500 

$6,500 

For machines of fifty tons capacity, the cost is $500 
less on each machine ; the power required is, of course, 
less, and the cost for an engine would be reduced pro- 
portionately. 

The number of machines to be run in one establish- 
ment may be increased with comparatively small outlay 
for buildings and power. 



64 



PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 



The laborers employed, and the cost of labor for run- 
ning one of these machines, will doubtless be an item of 
interest to those investigating the subject. At the works 
of the Boston Peat Company, at Lexington, Mass., they 
have been as follows, for 100 tons crude peat per day : 

Four men to cut the peat from the bog and load it 
into cars ; one boy, one horse, and two cars, to haul (on 
a tramway) from the bog to the mill ; one man to feed 
into the mill ; one man to put moulds into the mill , 
two men to take moulds from the mill ; one boy, one 
horse, and three trucks to remove the moulds (filled 
with peat) to the spreading ground ; two men on the 
spreading ground to empty the moulds ; one boy to re- 
ceive the moulds as they come back from the spread- 
ing ground ; one engineer and one superintendent. 

This comprises 12 men, 3 boys, and 2 horses. 



Ten of the men are paid . 
The engineer is paid . 
The superintendent is paid 
The three boys are paid . 
For the two horses we pay 



In addition to this the blocks of peat require to 
be " haked " or turned once while on the spreading 
ground, which is done by boys, and the dry fuel is 
to be gathered up and placed under shelter, which 
can easily be done by two men, and occasionally 
an extra man or boy may be wanted about the 
premises ; all of which is considered to be more 
than covered by ten dollars per day, 



$1.75 per day . 


. $17.50 


2.50 " " . . 


. 2.50 


3.00 " " . . 


. 3.00 


75 " " . . 


. 2.25 


1.25 "."-..- 


. 2.50 



$27.75 



10.00 



Giving as a total cost for labor on each day's 
yield of, say 25 tons or more, of merchantable fuel, $37.75 



In this connection, some data concerning peat-beds, 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 65 

and the product of manufacture, may be of interest. 
We therefore give the following as some of the results 
of our own observation, from repeated practical tests at 
the works of the Boston Peat Company, located at East 
Lexington, Mass., about ten miles from Boston. 

A cubic foot of crude peat, as taken from a well- 
drained bog, weighs from fifty to fifty-five pounds. 

This same quantity is condensed by the machinery 
in use at the works above mentioned, from thirty to forty 
per cent., according to the character or structure of the 
material, and that too, before it is relieved from any of 
the water contained in the mass. 

In this state it is formed into blocks of convenient 
size, which are then exposed in the open air, where 
evaporation takes place very rapidly, and is found to be 
greatly accelerated by the treatment the material has 
received in passing through the condensing mill ; so 
that the time ordinarily required in the summer season 
for drying sufficiently to be housed is about six or eight 
days, though it varies from four to ten days, according 
to the weather ; and by evaporation it is still further 
reduced to about one quarter its original bulk, and will, 
at this stage, have been found to have lost about two 
thirds to three quarters of its original weight, its 
bulk having been diminished by the forcible ejection of 
the air in the process of condensing, and the loss of 
water by evaporation, while its vj eight is diminished 
solely by the evaporation of the water. 

A ton of wet peat, as cut, will measure about forty 
cubic feet ; and about one hundred and sixty cubic feet 
of crude material are required to produce one ton of 
dry fuel. Some very compact peats, however, require 
not more than 140, or even 120, cubic feet for a ton of 
dry fuel. 

5 



66 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

One block, as it comes moist from the moulds, 
measures 8 X 4 X 2| (80 cubic inches), and weighs 
about 3 lb. 6 oz. 

The machines turn out respectively 30,000 and 
60,000 of these blocks per day. 

The best place to dry the blocks is on the grass, in 
the open air, where they dry most rapidly and uniformly. 

A very economical method of drying is, undoubtedly, 
on racks, consisting of a light frame about seven feet 
long by three feet wide, crossed with ordinary laths, 
convenient to receive 48 blocks each (8 X 6=48), and 
are easily handled by two men. These may be piled 
one upon another, while good ventilation is secured, and 
the cost of handling is less than by any other method, 
except upon the grass, as above. 

Of those blocks, wet as they come from the mill, 610 
weigh one ton. 

As these blocks are laid out to dry, an acre of land 
will be covered by about 250 tons — spread on the 
grass. 

If spread on racks or frames, as above described, one 
ton will require 13 frames. 

One acre of land, then, allowing one fourth the area 
for drive-ways, &c, will accommodate 1650 frames (one 
deep), or about 125 tons. 

The same area, covered with frames 10 tiers high, 
will accommodate 1250 tons. 

Peat can be manufactured and dried in this manner, 
in good weather, so as to make a good fuel, and be suit- 
able to burn, in a week or ten days ; but, like good dry 
wood, it is undoubtedly much improved in quality when 
housed and allowed to cure for a season, say three to 
six months. 

An acre of peat, of fair quality, well drained, if one 



METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR FUEL. 67 

foot in depth, will generally contain 1000 to 1200 tons, 
yielding 250 to 350 tons of dry fuel. Greater depths 
in proportion. 

Few peats, however well drained, contain less than 
50 per cent, of water, and most contain 65 to 85 
per cent. 

Our own estimates have always been made on 75 per 
cent, of moisture, which is safe; but it is quite proba- 
ble that 70 per cent, would be fair in the majority of 
well-drained meadows. 

When best drained, peat is worked to the best advan- 
tage, both as regards economy of labor and the quantity 
and quality of fuel produced. 

Peats vary much in their heating properties, as do 
woods and coals, according to their growth and compo- 
sition. The most thoroughly decomposed and compact 
deposits yield, .when manufactured, the most dense fuel 
at no greater cost for labor than the lighter and more 
porous material, and are, therefore, the cheapest. 

It is an essential feature of this process, and one 
which, in some sections, will be found of great impor- 
tance, that from light and inferior qualities of crude 
peat, we are able to produce an excellent article of fuel. 

Pure moss peats are invariably good. The most res- 
inous peats are shown to be the most valuable, especially 
for generating steam and for the production of gas. 

As to the specific gravity of condensed peat : we have 
often heard it said that " peat is equal to the best hard 
wood." Xow, we know that the best and hardest woods 
will float upon water ; while it is a fact that, from the 
very poorest peats we have ever worked, our machinery 
has never failed to produce a fuel which would sink in 
water ; showing its specific gravity to be greater than 
the bc^t of woods. 



68 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

We are able to produce fuel varying from 65 to 80 
pounds per cubic foot, according to the character of the 
crude material, which is equal to from 4 to 5 tons to the 
solid cord, or 2£ to 3^ tons in its broken condition, as 
shovelled up and loaded when dry. 

In estimating the weight of dry peat-fuel per cubic 
foot, bushel, or otherwise, it should be understood that 
the waste space in peat and in wood, as commonly 
heaped or piled, is probably not far from 40 per cent. 

The quality of peat-fuel, like wood, is improved by 
age ; that is, the fuel, although housed very soon after 
it is manufactured, and considered dry, and in excellent 
condition for use, as it really is, will be found to have 
improved very much if properly housed, and allowed to 
remain and cure for three, six, or even twelve months, 
the difference in quality being as readily observed as in 
wood, under the same circumstances. 

Although peat-fuel, properly manufactured, will stand 
considerable exposure to the weather, it will inevitably 
be injured, to some extent, by rain and snow, sun and 
frost, if left uncovered long after it is fit for use ; and 
every manufacturer and consumer will find it to be the 
wiser course, if he has a good article of fuel, to provide 
a suitable place for it, and take good care of it. 

Frequent inquiry is made as to the practicability of 
drying peat by artificial means, and the best method of 
accomplishing it. That it can be dried by artificial 
means has been satisfactorily demonstrated ; but we are 
by no means prepared to say that the best and most 
economical method for accomplishing it has yet been de- 
vised. A great variety of kilns are in operation, some 
of them certified and acknowledged to work almost to 
perfection in drying lumber, cotton, tobacco, &c. ; but 
wet peat is obstinate, will not yield kindly to the same 



PEAT-CHARCOAL. 69 

treatment, in fact is "a, poser." Its peculiarities have 
yet to be fully understood. 

The points to be considered in perfecting a process 
for artificial drying, aside from the first cost of buildings 
and apparatus, are, the time required, the expense for 
fuel and labor, and the quality and characteristics of the 
fuel produced, as affected by the manner of drying. 

Wc have no idea that artificial drying will be resorted 
to, to any extent, during good weather in the summer, 
at present, for Nature accomplishes the work for us, 
when she does it at all, better than Art can, and at much 
less expense ; but in stormy weather, and during the 
winter season, we are satisfied that it can be done ; and 
although the best method has not yet been proved, we 
are on the direct road to it, and, by patient, persevering 
effort, with a willingness to "make haste slowly," we 
fully expect to .reach it in good time. 

A light current of heated air, passing over and through 
the mass of peat, is what is required ; the details of 
buildings, mechanical arrangement of the apparatus, 
and cost of fuel and labor, by which to attain the best 
results in the most rapid and economical manner, are 
points which cannot be said to have been sufficiently 
elucidated to admit of writing definitely in regard to 
them. 

Steady progress is being made, and time, skill, and 
enterprise are sure to demonstrate the best method of 
artificial drying. 

Peat-Ciiaecoal . 

Not merely may we utilize peat in its natural condi- 
tion, or in its manufactured and solidified state, but we 
may carbonize it as we do wood, and produce peat- 
charcoal. 



70 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

The common and simple mode of carbonizing or 
charring the ordinary peat is in heaps, in the same man- 
ner as that of wood. The sods or blocks must be reg- 
ularly arranged, and laid as close as possible : they are 
the better for being large, — say fifteen inches long by 
six broad and deep. The heaps, built hemispherically, 
should be smaller in size than the heaps of wood usually 
are. In general, some five thousand or six thousand 
large sods may go to the heap, which will thus contain 
about fifteen hundred cubic feet. The mass must be 
allowed to heap more than necessary for wood ; and the 
process requires to be very carefully attended to, from 
the extreme combustibility of the charcoal. The quan- 
tity of charcoal obtained by this method is generally 
from twenty to thirty per cent, of the weight of dry 
turf. 

For many industrial uses, however, the charcoal so 
produced from peat in its natural state is too light ; be- 
cause, generally speaking, it is only with fuel of con- 
siderable density that the most intense heat can be 
produced. 

It is, therefore, only from peat in a manufactured or 
solidified state that we can expect to prepare a char- 
coal thoroughly adapted as % a fuel for the more severe 
processes required in the arts. 

By coking this, however, a charcoal is produced of a 
density of 1.040 or upwards, which is far superior to 
the best wood-charcoal, and is fully equal to that of the 
best coke made from coal. 

Its calorific power is intense. The quality of charcoal 
generally obtained from a good article of solidified peat 
is from thirty-five to forty-two per cent, of its weight. 

In the great Exhibition at Paris, in 1851, numerous 
specimens of peat and peat-charcoal, prepared by differ- 



PEAT-CHARCOAL. 71 

ent patented processes, were exhibited, which were re- 
markable for their density and cheapness, and attracted 
particular attention. They were stated to be econom- 
ically employed for stationary steam engines and for 
locomotives. 

Moulded peat, in small bricks, of density sufficient to 
sink in water, is supplied in the city of Paris from nu- 
merous sources, mostly for domestic purposes. From 
Liancourt, distant seventeen leagues, it is brought, and 
sold at the rate of twenty francs for 2204 pounds avoir- 
dupois. It is stated of one firm, that, in 1855, they 
converted some ten thousand tons or more into charcoal, 
obtaining from forty to forty-two per cent., w r hich was 
sold at wholesale for one hundred francs the one thou- 
sand kilograms (two thousand two hundred and four 
pounds), which was about the same value as wood- 
charcoal, and about three times the price of w^ood and 
mineral coal for the same weight. 

The methods adopted for charring or carbonizing peat 
differ somewhat in the various localities where it is pre- 
pared. We have seen descriptions of the manner in 
which it is conducted in England, Ireland, France, Bo- 
hemia, Bavaria, Saxony, Russia, Friesland, and else- 
where ; the general principles being the same, but differ- 
ing in details, some of which appear to offer decided 
advantages in an economical point of view, and in the 
production of the greatest amount of compact fuel from 
a given weight of the raw material. 

From Prof. Johnson we quote : — 

" When peat is charred, it yields a coal or coke which, 
being richer in carbon, is capable of giving an intenser 
heat than peat itself, in the same way that charcoal emits 
an intenser heat in its combustion than the wood from 
which it is made. 



72 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

" Peat coal has been and is employed, to some extent, 
in metallurgical processes, as a substitute for charcoal, 
and, when properly prepared from good peat, is in no 
way inferior to the latter — is, in feet, better. 

"It is only, however, from peat which naturally dries 
to a hard and dense consistency, or which has been 
solidified on the principles of Challeton's and Weber's 
methods (condensed in its moist state) , that a coal can 
be made possessing the firmness necessary for furnace 
use. Fibrous peat, or that condensed by pressure, as 
in Exter's, Elsberg's, and the Lithuanian process, yields, 
by coking or charring, a friable coal, comparatively un- 
suitedfor heating purposes. 

" A peat which is dense as the result of proper me- 
chanical treatment and slow drying, yields a very 
homogeneous and compact coal, superior to any wood 
charcoal, the best qualities weighing nearly twice as 
much per bushel. 

"Peat is either charred in pits and heaps, or in kilns. 
From the regularity of the rectangular blocks into which 
peat is usually formed, it may be charred more easily in 
pits than wood, since the blocks admit of closer packing 
ill the heap, and because the peat-coal is less inflamma- 
ble than wood-coal. The heaps may likewise be made 
much smaller than is needful in case of wood, viz., six 
to eight feet in diameter, and four feet high. 

"I have carbonized, in an iron retort, specimens of 
peat prepared by Elsberg's, Leavitt's, and Ashcroft and 
Betteley's processes. Elsberg's gave 35, the others 37 
per cent, of coal. The coal from Elsberg's peat was 
greatly fissured, and could be crushed in the fingers to 
small fragments. That from the other peats was more 
firm, and required considerable exertion to break it. 
All had a decided metallic brilliancy of surface." 



PEAT IX EUROPE. 73 

The high heating power of peat-charcoal, and its free- 
dom from properties deleterious to metal, must invest it 
with peculiar interest to the smelter, and those who fol- 
low after him as manufacturers of the article he produces ; 
while, to the sanitary reformer and the agriculturist, its 
disinfecting and fertilizing qualities may be said to be 
of hardly less importance. 

Peat in Europe. 

The abundance and accessibility of peat in Ireland 
render it of no small importance among the natural re- 
sources of that land, especially to the vast mass of the 
poorer classes. It is generally of superior quality, plen- 
tiful, and cheap. Not only is it the common fuel of the 
poor in the interior, — and, indeed, of all classes, in some 
districts, — but it is transported in barges, in immense 
quantities, by canal, to Dublin, and there consumed by 
the wealthier class of the people. 

So extensive is the supply of peat in Ireland, that it 
has been estimated to occupy one seventh of its entire 
surface. It is stated that Ireland has two canals running 
through two million acres of peat-bog. Among other 
instances of the value of peat as an article of fuel, it is 
stated that a distillery company, by the judicious man- 
agement of a bog, had their steam power for half the 
cost required for coals, and were, at the same time, 
making an estate of reclaimed land for themselves. 

The red peat-bogs, which form so remarkable a fea- 
ture in this country, are chiefly comprised in the great 
central plain of Ireland. Unlike the English mosses, 
they are rarely level, but undulating ; and, in Donegal, 
there is a bog which is completely diversified by hill 
and dale. 



74 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

These bogs consist of moist vegetable matter, contain- 
ing a great deal of stagnant water, and, after heavy 
rains, have been known to burst, and inundate the 
adjoining country. 

At a meeting of the British Association, in 1842, Mr. 
Griffith illustrated the mode in which he considered the 
coal-measures had been formed, by describing the gen- 
eral condition of the peat-bogs of Ireland. They ap- 
peared to occupy basins which had formerly been lakes ; 
but the peat-moss had grown up to the level of the 
water, and afterwards, by capillarity, had risen twenty 
or thirty feet higher. As a case in point, he mentioned 
a bog, the base of which consisted of clay, covered by a 
layer of peat which is composed of rushes and flags. 
Above this is another bed of peat, closely resembling 
cannel-coal, "possessing a conchoidal fracture, and 
hard enough to be ivorked into snuff-boxes.'' It yield- 
ed twenty-fiye per cent, of ashes, and contained a large 
proportion of oxide of iron. 

This bed was covered with black peat, containing 
branches and twigs of fir, or pine, oak, yew, and hazel, 
only the bark being left ; and, where whole trees oc- 
curred, the roots were entirely gone. The surface was 
formed of ordinary bog-moss (sphagnuni) , nearly white. 
The whole amount of peat in the bog referred to, would, 
he thought, form a coal-seam of at least three or four 
feet in thickness. 

AYe have seen several statements, of late years, to 
the effect that the area of peat-land in Ireland is consid- 
erably diminished ; some of the bogs having been re- 
claimed, and converted into arable land, and others 
exhausted, drained, or cut out. 

The Bog of Dourah, eastward from the Fergus, affords 
the principal supply of peat to Ennis and Clare. The 



TEAT IN EUROPE. 75 

boga in this district abound in timber. A fir-tree, 
measuring thirty-one to thirty-eight inches in diameter, 
by sixty-eight feet in length, is mentioned as having 
been raised from a bog near Kilrush. The mode of 
finding bog-timber is rather remarkable. It is ascer- 

© © 

tained that the dew does not lie on that portion of a bog 
immediately above a tree or log, as it does elsewhere. 
Its position can thus be easily ascertained before the 
dews rise in the morning ; when the finder, after prob- 
ing with a bog-auger to ascertain whether the wood be 

© © © 

sound, marks the spot with a spade, and proceeds to 
raise the timber at his leisure. Much of this timber is 
sound ; and from some bogs very large and exceedingly 
valuable sticks have been raised, the growth of past ages. 

The series of extensive bogs in the central part of Ire- 
land, though separated from each other, have received 
the common name of " The Bog of Allen." They vary 
much in depth, composition, moisture, &c. They rest, 
generally, upon a stratum of blue clay, based on lime- 
stone, and are invariably above the level of the sea. 
Their greatest elevation, however, does not exceed four 
hundred and ninety feet ; the mean elevation being two 
hundred and fifty feet. 

The Parliamentary Commission, appointed about 
18.12, to inquire into the nature and extent of the several 
bogs in Ireland, and the practicability of draining and cul- 
tivating them, reported, in 1814, that "the extent of 
peat-soil in Ireland exceeds two million eight hundred and 
thirty-one thousand English acres," of which there were 
at least one million five hundred and seventy-six thou- 
sand acres of flat red-bog, considered the most valuable ; 
the remainder consisting of mountain-bogs, on the sur- 
face of the uplands. 

The drainage and cultivation of these extensive pro- 



76 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

portions of the surface of Ireland have long been regard- 
ed as objects of great national importance. Numerous 
commissions have been appointed to investigate and 
report, and frequent attempts have been made to show 
that these ends might be attained at no very great ex- 
pense ; but the instances of successful bog cultivation 
in any part of the island are very few, and those only 
under peculiar circumstances. The bogs have a value 
which none can question, even though they be entirely 
useless for purposes of cultivation. They supply the 
inhabitants extensively with fuel. In those parts, in- 
deed, where bogs are scarce, they are the most valuable 
properties in the country. In some localities, the peat 
has been entirely cut out ; and where this is the case, 
and other bogs are not easily accessible, the inhabitants 
have sustained great privations from the want of fuel. 

It has been remarked, that " the rainy climate of Ire- 
land, and the wet occupations of the people, together 
with the nature of their food, render a fire more essen- 
tial to their welfare than to most others ; and, in fact, 
it is frequently the substitute for clothing, bedding, and, 
in part for shelter. Had it not been for the bog, the 
measures taken in former times to extirpate the nation 
might probably have succeeded ; but the bog gave them 
a degree of comfort upon easy terms, and enabled them 
to live under severe privations of another kind." 
" We have seen an estimate somewhat as follows, in- 
tended to show how important to Ireland are her peat- 
bogs in furnishing a valuable fuel, independent of her 
deposits of anthracite and bituminous coal. 

The quantity capable of being cut for fuel may be 
taken as low as two million acres, at an average depth 
of three yards ; the mass of fuel which they contain, 
estimated at five hundred and fifty pounds per cubic 



PEAT IN EUROPE. 77 

yard when dry, amounts to the enormous- quantity of 
6,338,666,666 tons. 

Taking, therefore, the value of peat (crude) as com- 
pared with that of coal (said to be as one to six) , the total 
amount of peat fuel in Ireland is equivalent to four hun- 
dred and seventy million tons of coal ; which, at twelve 
shillings per ton, is worth about £280,000,000 sterling, 
or $1,335,000,000. 

In regard to the trees which are so frequently found 
in the Irish bogs, Mr. Aher remarks, " Such trees have 
generally six or seven feet of compact peat under their 
roots, which are found standing as they grew ; evidently 
proving the formation of peat to have been previous 
to the growth of the trees." In the bogs in the vicinity 
of Londonderry, according to the Report of the Ordi- 
nance Survey in 1837, the fact above stated may be ver- 
ified in relation to fir-trees, the lowest layer of which 
is underlaid by from three to five feet of peat. Not so, 
however, with oaks, as their stumps are commonly found 
resting on the gravel at the base, or on the sides of the 
small hillocks of gravel and sand which so often stud the 
surfaces of bogs, and have been aptly called "islands" 
by Mr. Aher, and "hummocks" by other writers. It 
is a remarkable fact, although very common, that suc- 
cessive layers of trees or stumps in the erect position in 
which they had grown, and furnished with all their roots, 
are found at distinctly different levels, and at small ver- 
tical distances from each other. 

The bogs contain, it has been ascertained, two im- 
portant families of trees, the resinous or coniferous trees, 
which grew in successive layers or tiers upon the ancient 
surfaces of peat ; and the hard-wooded, non-resinous 
trees, which grew upon the gravel at the original base. 
Of the former, the prevailing tree was the common 



Yb PEAT AS AN A1ITICLE OF FUEL. 

Scotch pine, or fir, — Pinus sylvestris: of the latter, 
the oak, Quercus robur, prevailed. 

It may be mentioned here, as a matter of some 
interest, that in a " notice of a submarine forest in 
Cardigan Bay, North Wales," the author remarks on 
the occurrence therein of the Pinus sylvestris, although 
the Scotch fir is now excluded from the native flora. 

Professor Lyell, in his " Principles of Geology," 



" It is a curious and well-ascertained fact, that many 
of the mosses (bogs) of the north of Europe occupy 
the place of immense forests of pine and oak, which 
have, many of them, disappeared within the historical 
era. Such changes are brought about by the fall of 
trees, and the stagnation of water caused by their trunks 
and branches obstructing the free drainage of the at- 
mospheric waters, and giving rise to a marsh. In a 
warm climate, such decayed timber would immediately 
be removed by insects .or by putrefaction ; but, in the 
cold temperature now prevailing in our latitudes, many 
examples are recorded of marshes originating in this 
source. Thus, in Mar Forest, in Aberdeenshire, large 
trunks of Scotch fir, which had fallen from age and de- 
cay, were soon immured in peat formed partly out of 
their perishing leaves and branches, and in part from 
the growth of other plants. We also learn that the 
overthrow of a forest by a storm, about the middle of 
the seventeenth century, gave rise to a peat-moss, near 
Lochbroom, in Ross-shire, where, in less than half a 
century after the fall of the trees, the inhabitants dug 
peat. Dr. Walker mentions a similar change, when, in 
the year 1756, the whole Wood of Drumlaurig was 
overset by the wind. Such events explain the occur- 
rence, both in Britain and on the Continent, of mosses 



FEAT IN EUROPE. 79 

where the trees are all broken within two or three feet' 
of the original surface, and where their trunks all lie in 
the same direction. 

" Nothing is more common than the occurrence of 
buried trees at the bottom of the Irish peat-mosses, as 
also in most of those of England, France, and Holland ; 
and they have been so often observed with parts of their 
trunks standing erect, and with their roots fixed to the 
subsoil, that no doubt can be entertained of their hav- 
ing generally grown on the spot. They consist, for the 
most part, of the fir, the oak, and the birch. Where 
the subsoil is clay, the remains of oak are the most 
abundant ; where sand is the substratum, fir prevails. 

"In the Marsh of Curragh, in the Isle of Man, vast 
trees are discovered standing firm on their roots, though 
at the depth of eighteen or twenty feet below the surface. 
The leaves and fruit of each species are frequently found 
immersed along with the parent trees ; as, for example, 
the leaves and acorns of the oak, the cones and leaves 
of the fir, and the nuts of the hazel. 

"The durability of pine- wood, which in the Scotch 
peat-mosses exceeds that of the birch and oak, is due to 
the great quantity of turpentine which it contains, and 
which is so abundant that the fir- wood from bogs is 
used by the country people, in parts of Scotland, in the 
place of candles. Such resinous plants, observes Dr. 
Macculloch, as fir, would produce a fatter coal than oak, 
because the resin itself is converted into bitumen. 

"In Hatfield moss, which appears clearly to have 
been a forest eighteen hundred years ago, fir-trees have 
been found ninety feet long, and sold for masts and 
keels of ships : oaks have also been discovered there 
above one hundred feet long. The dimensions of an 
oak from this moss are given in the Philosophical 



80 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Transactions ,. No. 275, which must have been larger 
than any tree now existing in the British dominions. 

" In the same moss of Hatfield, as well as in that of 
Kincardine and several others, Roman roads have been 
found, covered to the depth of eight feet by peat. All 
the coins, axes, arms, and other utensils found in British 
and French mosses, are also Roman ; so that a consid- 
erable portion of the European peat-bogs are evidently 
not more ancient than the age of Julius Caesar : nor can 
any vestiges of the ancient forests described by that 
general, along the line of the great Roman way in 
Britain, be discovered, except in the ruined trunks of 
trees in peat. 

"De Luc ascertained that the very site of the ab- 
original forests of Hircinia, Semana, Ardennes, and 
several others, are now occupied by mosses and fens ; 
and a great part of these changes have, with much 
probability, been attributed to the strict orders given by 
Severus and other emperors to destroy all the wood in 
the conquered provinces. Several of the British forests, 
however, which are now mosses, were cut at different 
periods by order of the English Parliament, because 
they harbored wolves or outlaws. Thus the Welsh 
woods were cut and burnt in the reign of Edward L, 
as were many of those in Ireland by Henry II., to 
prevent the natives from harboring in them and harass- 
ing his troops. 

" It is curious to reflect that considerable tracts have, 
by these accidents, been permanently sterilized; and 
that, during a period when civilization has been making 
great progress, large areas in Europe have, by human 
agency, been rendered less capable of administering to 
the wants of man. Dr. Rennie observes with truth, 
that in those regions alone which the Roman eagle never 



FRANCE. 81 

reached, in the remote circles of the German Empire, 
in Poland and Prussia, and still more in Norway, 
Sweden, and the vast empire of Russia, can we see 
what Europe was before it yielded to the power of Rome. 
Desolation now reigns where stately forests of pine and 
oak once flourished, such as might now have supplied 
all the navies of Europe with timber. 

K At the bottom of peat-mosses is sometimes found a 
cake, or 'pan' as it is termed, of oxide of iron; and 
the frequency of bog iron-ore is familiar to the miner- 
alogist. The oak, which is so often found dyed black 
in peat, owes its color to the same metal. From what 
source the iron is derived is by no means obvious, since 
we cannot in all cases suppose that it has been precipi- 
tated from the waters of mineral springs. According 
to Fourcroy, there is iron in all compact wood ; and it 
is the cause of one twelfth part of the weight of oak. 
The heaths (Uricce) which flourish in a sandy, ferrugi- 
nous soil, are said to contain more iron than any other 
vegetable. 

" It has been suggested that iron, being soluble in 
acids, may be diffused through the whole mass of vege- 
tables when they decay in a bog, and may, by its 
superior specific gravity, sink to the bottom, and be 
there precipitated, so as to form bog iron-ore ; or, where 
there is a subsoil of sand or gravel, it may cement there 
into iron-stone or ferruginous conglomerate." 

France. 

There are several deposits of peat which furnish the 
supply of this material for the Paris market. A portion 
of a large peat-bog near Liancourt, on the Northern 
Railway, seventeen leagues from Paris, is wrought by 



82 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Messrs. Debonne & Co., who employ about three 
hundred men during five months of the year. The peat 
here has an average thickness of about ten feet. The 
cuttings from the top and bottom of the bog are mixed, 
and, being transferred to flat-boats, is turned over with 
shovels and trampled by the feet of men ; after which it 
is moulded with pressure into the form of small bricks, 
which, when dried, are ready for market. 

The quantity annually raised by this concern is from 
ten thousand to twelve thousand tons, a large portion of 
which is converted, upon the spot, into charcoal, of which 
the yield is from forty to forty-two per cent. 

The moulded peat is worth, in Paris, about twenty 
francs per ton ; the charcoal, about one hundred francs 
per ton. This peat yields about ten per cent, of ash, 
and the charcoal twenty-seven per cent. ; which indicates 
a quality inferior to most American peats. 

M. Herbert, of Reims, prepares a large quantity of 
compressed peat of excellent quality, amounting to 
about fourteen thousand tons annually, a part of which 
is manufactured into charcoal. 

The peats and charcoals prepared by the patented 
process of Challeton at Clermont Ferrand and Man- 
tauger, specimens of which were shown at the great 
Exhibition of 1851, were remarkable for their density 
and cheapness, and attracted particular attention. They 
were said to be economically employed for stationary 
steam engines and locomotives. 

Dr. Elisha North, of New London, Conn., writes in 
1825, "I believe, judging from much experience, that 
peat of the best quality, if used for producing a genial 
and pleasant temperature in common winter weather, 
is the best fuel which the earth produces, unless an 



FRANCE. S3 

exception be made in favor of a very few species of trees 
equally well prepared. 

"My opinion respecting its utility has been confirmed 
by judicious and candid persons who have been practi- 
cally and thoroughly acquainted with it." 

He adds, "As evidence that public opinion in some 
places is in favor of peat, it' may be mentioned that Cit- 
izen Ribaucourt published by order of the French Gov- 
ernment, in the eleventh year of the republic, a regular 
treatise on the subject. In this treatise, he says ten 
thousand persons are annually employed in preparing 
and transporting peat from one peat basin or marsh upon 
the lesser branch of the Loire, in the north-west part of 
France. This peat-bed cannot be a great distance from 
the city Nantes, where much peat is burnt; or even 
from the city of Paris." 

A translation .of a part, and a synopsis of the remain- 
der, of the report of Ribaucourt, referred to by Dr. 
North, was subsequently published in Silliman's "Jour- 
nal of Science" in 1828. From this it appears that 
peat and its various uses had long been known in 
France. Its use, however, had been limited to the de- 
partments of Somme, Loire-inferieure, Pas de Calais, 
some cantons of the departments of Oise, Marne, Eure, 
Seine et Oise, Meurthe, Vosges, and to a few others. 
There is scarcely a valley which does not contain valua- 
ble deposits of it, the thickness varying from six inches 
to twenty feet. 

He remarks that peat and the coal of peat may be 
put to the same uses as wood and charcoal, and may be 
advantageously employed in a great number of the arts. 
It is employed not only for domestic purposes, but in 
furnaces under boilers, in burning brick and lime, and 



84 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

in preparing plaster. The ashes are very valuable in 
agriculture, and command a high price. Observations 
show that the water which has penetrated peat beds has 
antiseptic properties. 

We find in the work of De Luc, entitled "A Letter 
upon Men and Mountains," some interesting details 
upon the progressive accumulation of peat, analogous to 
that of glaciers in certain mountains. There have been 
found under certain beds, in the Valley of the Somme, 
ancient causeways, divers tools, and pieces of money. 

From a paper entitled "Peat as an Article of Fuel," 
published in Boston in 1864, we extract the follow- 
ing:— 

"It is estimated, that, in France, there exists the enor- 
mous quantity of six thousand million tons of peat, puri- 
fied and dried in the crude state ; or, reduced to char- 
coal, two thousand six hundred and ten millions of 
tons ; the heating power of which equals that of wood- 
charcoal. 

"From the figures of the most skilful minino- en- 
gineers in the empire, we find that — 

DegTees of Heat. 

1 kilogram of wood-charcoal . . . yields 7,000 

1 " purified peat-charcoal " 7,000 

1 " coal-coke .... " -7,000 

1 " raw coal " 5,000 

1 " raw wood ... " 2,600 

1 " raw purified peat . . " 4,300 

while condensed peat, deprived of the excess of oxygen, 
possesses nearly double the heating power of coal. 

" Again : it is proved that the total general annual 
consumption in France of all kinds of mineral and vege- 
table fuels was as follows : — 



FRANCE. 85 

Wood-charcoal for iron-works 667,902 tons. 

" " " other purposes .... 472,630 
Raw wood for iron-works 8,405 

" " " other purposes 1,989,710 

Coal-coke for iron-works ...*... 767,622 

" " " other purposes ..... 2,462,400 
Raw coal for iron-works 1,108,252 

m t< u nav igation, railroads, &c. . . 3,725,200 
Raw and carbonized peat, actual consumption 359,319 



Total 11,561,440 tons. 

•" If peat had been used in the place of these different 
kinds of fuel, it would have required 15,656,687 tons, 
raw and purified, to produce the same effect; and, at 
that rate, the supply of peat in France would have suf- 
ficed the empire for nine hundred years, without import- 
ing a pound of coal, and leaving her free to export 
annually the seven million five hundred thousand tons 
of coal she raised in 1862, and free likewise from the 
necessity of importing eight million tons of coal, as she 
did from England and Belgium in the same year. 

" It is not believed that France is any better off in 
respect to her deposits of peat than the New England 
States ; and it is safe to say, that, by a proper develop- 
ment of their resources in this respect, these States could 
soon make themselves independent of the world, so far 
at least as the supply of fuel is concerned, retaining 
within themselves all the vast sums they annually ex- 
pend for fuel, besides giving employment to and enrich- 
ing their own population. 

" But can peat be used at less or even the same ex- 
pense as other kinds of fuel for manufacturing purposes ? 
Take the article of pig-iron. By the French engineers, 
it is found that the cost of working pig-iron, — 



86 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

1 ton, with wood-charcoal, was . . . , £4 lis. Od. 

1 " " coal-coke, was 2 16s. Od. 

1 " " raw coal, was 2 15s. 4d. 

1 " " purified peat-charcoal, was . 2 4s. lOd. 
1 " " crude peat (condensed), was . 1 10s. Od." 

" This is enough to prove the economy of peat for all 
purposes. The general result is thus stated: 'For do- 
mestic consumption, the econonvy — all conditions of 
heat being equal — would not be less than thirty per 
cent, on the cost of fires with wood-charcoal and wood, 
coke and raw coal; and that for large manufactories, 
which, on account of the quantity which they annually 
consume, should themselves produce this fuel, that cal- 
culation of economy would, in certain cases, be raised 
to sixty per cent.' " 

Similar results follow the inquiry into the economy 
of using peat in locomotive engines. Of the eleven 
hundred and ninety-nine locomotive engines employed 
by four great companies of France, it was estimated that 
the whole ran nineteen million five hundred thousand 
miles per year. They used coal and coke concurrently, 
amounting in the aggregate to a hundred and eighty-one 
thousand tons, at a cost of £446,711 sterling. Purified 
peat would have done the same work for £271,500, 
making a saving of £175,271, to say nothing of the less 
amount of wear and destruction of the boilers, grates, &c. 

But as to bulk, does not peat require more room? 
" It has been proved and acknowledged, that, for equal 
bulk, raw purified peat contains one third more heat 
than coke, and less- by one fifth only for an equal bulk 
of coal of good quality." 

Says M. Bute, Superintendent of Railway Engi- 
neers for the Kingdom of Hanover, "We can, by the 
help of a hopper placed on the tender, carry the quan- 



ITALY. 87 

tity of pent which would be necessary for a trip of one 
hundred to one hundred and twelve English miles. No 
difficulty will be presented to the employment of com- 
pressed peat for heating ordinary fixed engines, and, 
eventually, for that of steamboats. 

"On this subject it is sufficient to say, that, by the 
process employed by the c General Association for Work- 
ing the Peat and Metalliferous Deposits of France,' a 
density may be given to peat, when condensed, of from 
six to fifteen hundred weight per cubic yard." 

These facts and conclusions have been principally 
obtained from reports of companies in England, and of 
scientific associations in France, who have studied the 
subject of preparing peat, both as a money making 
enterprise and as an element in political economy. 

Italy. 

From the reports of the great Exhibition of 1862, we 
quote as follows : — 

" Looking at the difficulties caused by the neglect of 
the forests and by the want of coal, the jury were glad 
to award a medal to And. Gregorini of Bergamo for his 
successful introduction of peat in the puddling of both 
iron and steel." 

This was accomplished, as we have occasion to know, 
by the Siemens Gas Furnace, a description of which will 
be found on subsequent pages, under the head of "Peat 
in the Manufacture of Iron." 

"The absence of sufficient quantities of suitable fuel, 
and perhaps the tendency of the national tastes, keep 
the manufacture of iron in the Italian Peninsula at a 
lower point than we should expect, who remember that 



88 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

some of the oldest and grandest iron mines of the world 
are those of Elba. 

"Elba produces, on the average, forty-eight thousand 
tons of ore, of which twenty thousand tons are smelted 
in Fullonica and other places in Tuscany, and yield "the 
excellent pigs and bars exhibited by the government. 

" The total amount of pig-iron produced in Italy does 
not exceed thirty-eight thousand tons annually." 

# 
Falkland Islands. 

These islands are destitute of coal or wood of any 
kind ; but the lack of fuel is abundantly supplied by 
their extensive fields of peat, which are found in every 
part of the group. The deposits vary in depth from two 
to four feet ; and it is gathered, cured, and stored at 
small cost. 

Newfoundland . 

Large quantities of peat, suitable for fuel, exist on 
this island. 

It is stated on good authority, that beneath its surface 
occur the trunks and roots of trees much larger than any 
which are now growing on the island. 

Operations for the manufacture of fuel were com- 
menced at St. John's during the last season, but we are 
as yet without details of the results. 

Nova Scotia. 

Peat swamps and bogs are very numerous in Nova 
Scotia, especially in the rocky districts of the Atlantic 
coast. The most extensive are said to be near the 
Clyde River, in Shelburne, and the Carriboo Bog of 



ASIA. 89 

Avlesford. They consist of vegetable matter which has 
grown and accumulated on the spot, forming a black, 
carbonaceous moss, some of which has entered on the 
first stage of the changes by which it may be converted 
into coal ; and it is not unusual to find in the bottom of 
such bogs a substance much resembling ordinary bitu- 
minous coal. 

On the north-west arm of the River of Inhabitants, 
appears, under twenty feet of bowlder clay, a hardened 
bed of peat. It rests upon gray clay similar to that 
which often underlies peat-beds. 

Pressure has rendered this peat nearly as hard as coal, 
though it is somewhat tougher and more earthy than 
good coal. It has a glossy appearance when rubbed or 
scratched with a knife, burns with considerable flame, 
and approaches in its character to the brown coals or 
more imperfectvarieties of bituminous coal. It contains 
many small roots and branches, apparently of coniferous 
trees allied to the spruces. 

Asia. 

The following, which we cut from the " New York 
Evening Post" of a recent date, is the only mention we 
have seen of anything of the character of peat in Asia, 
and is interesting in this connection : — 

"At a recent meeting of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 
Major Risely described a combustible mud, of which he 
first heard last September. It exists in large tracts, 
notably in the Pertabghur districts in Oude, where there 
is a jheel, or swamp of black mud, which looks like 
ashes, and smoulders like wood. The mud, when dried, 
blazes quite freely. It has been tried at Cawnpore by 
Mr. Taylor, the locomotive foreman, and was found to 



90 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

give very nearly as much steam as wood. ' It would do 
very well for locomotives, and could be supplied at six 
annas the maund.' When charred, it can be used in a 
blacksmith's furnace. The ash, of which it leaves a 
great deal, will, they say, be very useful as a manure 
for poor, sandy soils. Bits of bone and fragments of 
decayed wood were found in it at considerable depths. 
The Calcutta analyzers call it impure peat, resulting 
from the continual decomposition of vegetable matter at 
the bottom of a marsh. It is curious that the natives, 
though well aware of its properties, make no use of it, 
their reason being that it owes its origin to ' enormous 
sacrifices of ghee and grain burnt in situ by godlike 
people in old time.' " 

Canada. 

Numerous and extensive deposits of peat are met with 
in various parts of Eastern Canada, which seems to pre- 
sent conditions of soil and climate peculiarly favorable 
to its growth and accumulation. The peat-bogs, so far 
as known, are chiefly confined to the plains along the 
St. Lawrence and its tributaries, and appear to have 
been formed in shallow lakes, which have been gradually 
filled up by the growth and decomposition of mosses. 
The peat often rests upon a layer of shell marl, 
which at one time formed the bottom of the lake. 
From the recent elaborate Report on the Geological 
Survey of Canada, made by Sir William E. Logan, 
Alexander Murray, Esq., T. Sterry Hunt, and E. Bil- 
lings, we are enabled to mention the principal deposits 
of peat which are as yet known in Canada. 

It is to be remarked that few of these deposits have 
ever yet been worked ; and that it is only in a few local- 



CANADA. 01 

itics that the thickness of the peat has been determined 
by pits or by borings. 

Beginning to the westward, a deposit of peat occur- 
on the twelfth lot of the fourth and fifth ranges of Shef- 
field, where it overlies a bed of marl, and extends over 
three or four hundred acres. The average thickness of 
the peat is about four feet, aud it is said to be of a supe- 
rior quality. In the level region between the St. Law- 
rence and Ottawa Rivers, several large peat-bogs occur ; 
but, from their nature, the vicinity has been avoided 
by settlers, and they are, therefore, difficult of access. 
There is said to be a considerable area of peat in the 
rear of the seigniories of Vaudreuil and Rigaud ; and 
also in Caledonia, where its thickness does not appear 
to exceed three or four feet. Peat occurs at the sources 
of the Pain River in Roxburg, Osnabruck, and Finch ; 
and also in Clarence, Cumberland, and Gloucester. In 
the third, fourth, and fifth ranges of the latter town- 
ship is a tract known as the Mer Bleu, which consists 
of two long peat-bogs, separated by a narrow ridge of 
higher land, and occupying each about two thousand 
five hundred acres. These deposits were sounded in 
many places, with a rod, to a depth of twenty-one feet, 
without finding bottom : in other parts, the peat was 
from eight to fifteen feet in thickness. This tract is sit- 
uated only three miles from the Ottawa, and is about 
two hundred and eighty feet above the level of the sea. 
Three large areas of peat, of from, one hundred to 
three hundred acres each, occur in Nepean and Goul- 
bourn ; one of them to the east, and two to the west, of 
the village of Richmond. It is also found on the third 
and eighth ranges of Beckwick, to the east of Missis- 
sippi Lake ; and an area of about three thousand acres of 
peat occurs in Westmeath, in the rear of front A, and 



92 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

from the first to the fifth range behind it. In the ninth 
and tenth ranges of Huntley, there are about two thousand 
five hundred acres of peat, which in some parts has a 
thickness of eight or ten feet, while in other parts no 
bottom is found at a depth of fifteen feet. It is proba- 
ble that peat may be met with in many other localities 
throughout this region. 

On the north side of the Ottawa, three small areas of 
peat hare been observed in Grenville. One of these, on 
the fourth and fifth lots, covers about thirty-six acres., 
and has a depth of ten feet. It has been used in the 
neighborhood, and is pronounced of excellent quality. 
Another deposit of about the same extent occurs on the 
first lot of the same range, and is in some parts more 
than fifteen feet in thickness. A third, of about thirty 
acres, occurs on the fourth lot of the seventh range. On 
the fourth and fifth lots of the first range of Harrington 
is a bog of about forty acres, the peat of which varies 
in depth from ten to twenty-five feet. Another bog is 
described as occurring on the first and second lots of the 
fifth range of the same township. It extends over about 
sixty acres, and has a thickness, in some parts, of twen- 
ty-five feet. All of these areas might be drained with- 
out much difficulty. To the eastward of this, a peat- 
bog is met with in the Kang Double of Mille-Iles. It 
exhibits a breadth, on the road from St. Janvier to St. 
Jerome, of about half a mile, and has an area of per- 
haps five eighths of a square mile. Its depth along the 
road was found to be, in several places, from two to 
eighteen feet, the greater depth being towards the south- 
east side ; and its average may be taken at eight feet. 
A smaller deposit of peat occurs half a mile nearer to 
St. Janvier : it has a breadth of about a quarter of a 
mile, but its superficies and depth have not been ascer- 



CANADA. 93 

fanned. Upon the same great plain with these, a little 
to the north of the Church of St. Anne des Plaines, and 
on the north-east side of the road leading to' New Glas- 
gow, is a peat-bog, having an area of about a square 
mile. Its depth was not determined ; but it is supposed 
to average about five feet. The farmers are in the 
habit of burning the surface of parts of this bog, and 
employing the ashes as a manure for the underlying 
portions, until by repeated burnings they reach the sub- 
jacent clay, which, mingled with the last thin layer of 
peat and a portion of the ash, constitutes a very fruitful 
soil. 

Near the front of the seigniories of Assumption and 
St. Sulpice, there is a peat-bog, three and a half miles 
in length, with an average breadth of half a mile, giv- 
ing an area of about eleven hundred acres. Its depth 
varies from two to fifteen feet ; and the result of ten 
trials, made in two lines across the bog, gave an aver- 
age of ten feet. In the seigniories of Lavaltrie and 
Lanoraye, there are two extensive peat-bogs, running 
parallel with each other. Of these the northern is the 
larger, and is known as the Grande Savanne. It has a 
length of about eight miles from north-east to south- 
west, and a breadth of from half a mile to two miles and 
a half, covering a superficies of from twelve to fifteen 
square miles. Two sections were made across this bog ; 
one on the line of the railway between Lanoraye and 
Industry, which traverses it about three miles from its 
south-west extremity. It here reaches to within four 
miles of the St. Lawrence, and has a breadth of two and 
a half miles. The depth along this line was found to 
be from four to fourteen feet, the average of twelve 
trials giving about eleven feet. The other section, along 
the Lavaltrie Road, about four miles to the north-east, 



94 PEAT AS x^N ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

gave a breadth of half a mile, and a depth of from seven 
to fourteen feet ; averaging, as before, eleven feet. The 
smaller of these bogs lies between that just described 
and the St. Lawrence, at a distance from the last of 
about two miles. On the line of the railway it has a 
breadth of over half a mile, and an average thickness of 
about five feet. It has a length of more than five miles, 
extending four and a half miles to the south-west of the 
railway, and a superficies of about three square miles. 

In the fief of St. Etienne, about a mile and three 
quarters south-west of the Gres, on the St. Maurice 
River, the main road crosses a peat-bog, which is there 
half a mile in breadth, with an average depth of about 
six feet. Its extent to the north-east and south-west has 
not been ascertained. Another was met with in the 
seigniory of Champlain, about three miles from the St. 
Lawrence, and on the road from the church to the River 
Champlain. Its breadth on the road is about three 
quarters of a mile ; and its average depth, in this part, 
five feet. Its length from north-east to south-west 
appears to be about two miles, giving to the bog an area 
of about a mile and three quarters. In the fief D'Au- 
teuil, on the road between Cap Saute* and the village of 
L'Enfant Jesus, there is a peat-bog, with a breadth of 
about a quarter of a mile, which has not been farther 
examined. Several other peat-bogs are known to exist 
between this last locality and the vicinity of Quebec. 

On the south side of the St. Lawrence, there is a 
large area occupied by peat on the west side of the 
River Richelieu. It covers portions of the seigniories 
De Lery and Lacolle, and of the townships of Sherring- 
ton and Hemmingford, embracing perhaps fifteen or 
twenty square miles. This area is drained in part by 
the Lacolle River. It has not been carefully examined 



CANADA. 95 

as vet; but it contains in some parts, particularly, it is 
said, in Sherrington, a very great thickness of peat. 
Of two specimens from this township, one, which was 
dark colored, fine grained, compact, and so heavy as to 
sink in water, gave only 3.53 per cent, of ash ; while 
the lighter peat, from near the surface of the bog, 
yielded 4.66 per cent, of ash. Both of these are very 
pure ; and the compact peat, which is remarkable from 
its great density and its freedom from earthy matters 
is particularly worthy of attention. 

A large peat-bog occurs in the seigniory of Longueuil, 
on the road to Chambly ; and an attempt was made, a 
few years since, to raise the peat, and introduce it to 
the Montreal market. A peat-bog of large size is found 
in the seigniory of Ste. Marie de Monnoir ; and another 
in the parish of St. Dominique, including parts of Ste. 
Rosalie and St. Pie. Its dimensions may be five or six 
miles in one direction by three or four in another. This 
extent is covered by a' layer of peat, which, from two 
or three feet at the edges, attains a depth of six feet, 
and in some parts, it is said, is eighteen feet in thick- 
ness. The bog has been partially drained, and portions 
of the land reclaimed for agricultural purposes. The 
drained land, being first cleared of trees, is ploughed, 
and then, in the dry season, set on fire. In this way, 
eight or ten inches of peat are burned, leaving an ash 
which serves as manure, and enables the surface to yield 
one or two crops of barley or oats. After two years, 
the soil becomes exhausted, and it requires to be again 
burned over to render it productive. When, by several 
repetitions of the process, the peat has been reduced to 
a few inches, the remaining portion is mingled, by 
ploughing, with the underlying clay, and a rich, mellow 
soil is obtained. The peat from this bog yields, when 



96 PEAT AS AN AETICLE OF FUEL. 

heated in close vessels, about thirty-six per cent, of coke, 
and contains from six to seven per cent, of ash. 

In the seigniory of Riviere Ouelle, there is a peat-bog 
which covers about four thousand acres ; and another 
one occurs in the seigniory of Riviere du Loup, having 
a superficies of six thousand acres. Its breadth, on 
the Temiscouata Road, is a mile and a quarter ; and its 
depth in some parts has been ascertained to be eighteen 
feet. Peat is found in abundance on the first and second 
concessions of the seigniory of He Verte ; and, from a 
point two miles below the Rimouski, there is a belt of 
peat-bog extending nearly all the way to the Me'tis River, 
a length of over twenty miles. Its distance from the 
St. Lawrence is from a quarter to half a mile, and its 
breadth from a quarter of a mile to a mile. The depth 
of the deposit, where observed, was from one to six 
feet. To the east of the Rimouski River, there is a 
peat-bog, which has a length of three or four miles, in 
the townships of Duquesne and Macpes, with a breadth 
of about three quarters of a mile, and a thickness which 
was found to be from five to twelve feet : it is said to be 
in one place thirty feet in depth. Another locality of 
peat is stated to be in the townships of Matanne and 
Macnider, between the Rivers Blanche and Matanne. 
A peat-bog of about one hundred acres occurs on the 
left bank of the Madawaska, just above the twelfth 
mile-post on the road to the Little Falls. 

The most extensive peat deposits in Canada are found 
on Anticosti. Along the low lands on the south coast 
of the island, from Heath Point to within eight or nine 
miles of South-west Point, a continuous plain, covered 
with peat, extends for upwards of eighty miles, with an 
average breadth of two miles ; thus giving a superficies 
of more than one hundred and sixty square miles. The 



CANADA. 97 

thickness of the peat, as observed on the coast, was 
from three to ten feet ; and it appears to be of an 
excellent quality. The height of this plain may be, on 
an average, fifteen feet above high-water mark ; and it 
could be easily drained and worked. Between South- 
west Point and the west end of the island, there are 
many smaller peat-bogs, varying in superficies from one 
hundred to one thousand acres. In the vicinity of Port 
Daniel, in the Gaspe District, extensive deposits of peat 
are found. 

The vegetation consists, for the most part, of mosses 
belonging to the genus Sphagnum. Besides these, 
however, the bogs often support a growth of tamarack 
and of various ericaceous plants. The leaves, roots, 
and stems of these, help, with the moss, to make up 
the peat. The peat near the surface consists of the 
moss but little, altered, and is very soft and porous ; but 
in the older and deeper portions of the deposit it is more 
dense, and darker in color, the vegetable tissue having 
undergone a partial decay, by which its fibrous structure, 
to a greater or less degree, disappears, and the substance 
assumes a more cheese-like texture. 

The various shell marls which are often associated 
with the peat deposits in Canada, have, in all cases 
where they have been examined, proved to be nearly 
pure carbonate of lime. 

At Bulstrode, on the Three Rivers and Arthabaska 
branch of the Grand Trunk Railway, Mr. Hodges 
has, for some three years, been conducting operations, 
experimental and practical, on a somewhat extensive 
scale, the results of which, obtained during the past 
year, have proved highly satisfactory. 

Numerous experiments with fuel prepared at his 
works have been tried on regular trains over the Grand 



98 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OE FUEL. 

Trunk Railway (some of which are reported on subse- 
quent pages), from which, it is stated that " it would 
appear that in heating power, a ton of peat is equal to 
five sixths of a ton of coal, or to a cord and a quarter 
of wood.' 5 

These experiments having all proved so satisfactory, 
as to result in a contract extending over five years or 
seasons : during the first of which the Company are to 
take 100 tons per day. and during the four succeeding 
seasons, 300 tons per day. 

The following extracts from an article which recently 
appeared in the " Trade Review," published at Montreal, 
may serve to indicate the importance which attaches to 
this enterprise in Canada : — 

" One of the most important questions that can arise 
for a country like Canada, where winter reigns supreme 
for from four to six months out of the twelve, is that 
of affording a cheap means of providing the heat actu- 
ally necessary to existence. 

" We have hardly any data on which to base a calcu- 
lation of the yearly cost to the country of the fuel con- 
sumed, but we may approximate to its cost in some 
measure. 

" Making due allowance, on the one hand, for these 
fortunate localities, where cord-wood can be had for the 
catting and hauling, and where the cost may be set as 
low as two dollars per cord, and also taking into con- 
sideration, on the other hand, the large quantities of 
wood (or coal at an equivalent valuation) consumed 
in cities at six. seven, and even eight dollars per cord, 
we think the average cost of fuel may be taken at four 
dollars and a half, which, in all probability, is below 
rather than above the mark. Xow, let us say that there 
are four hundred thousand families in Canada, burning 



CANADA. 99 

at the rate of twelve cords per annum (and this, too, 
is a low estimate when allowance has been made for the 
fuel used for steam purposes, and in warming churches, 
stores, warehouses, etc., etc.), and the consumption of 
fuel will represent a total cost of $21,600,000, or not 
far from double the entire expenses of carrying on the 
government of the country. It will, therefore, at once 
be seen how great is the economic importance of en- 
deavoring to provide fuel at the lowest possible cost, as 
well as of using that fuel in the most profitable way. 

" Every invention which will tend to secure economy, 
either in cost or consumption, will increase by so much 
the wealth of the country, in setting free, for other pro- 
ductive purposes, capital and labor now employed in the 
cutting and carrying to market of wood, and in the im- 
portation of coal. 

" One description of fuel, hitherto unused, though not 
exactly unknown in Canada, is peat. Several experi- 
ments have been made in past years, and unsuccessful 
attempts to introduce it into general use ; but, at last, 
it seems a mode of preparing it for market well and 
cheaply has been discovered ; and, if only a sufficient 
quantity can be supplied to meet the demand, one mode 
of economizing fuel will have been obtained. 

" By the experiments of the Grand Trunk Railway, 
it would appear that, in heating power, a ton of peat is 
equal to five sixths of a ton of coal, or to a cord and a 
quarter of wood. We are not aware that any careful 
experiments have been made to test the comparative 
heating and lasting qualities of peat, and the various 
kinds of coal and wood ; and these would be necessary 
before any exact calculations could be made as to the 
gain in the use of the new fuel. But, as far as we can 
judge from the trials made, the gain will be at least from 



100 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

thirty to thirty-five per cent., as compared with wood 
or coal. Now, a saving of even thirty per cent, on 
our estimate of the annual consumption of fuel will be 
nearly six and a half millions of dollars, and, were the 
precise facts known, would amount to very much more. 
Were this saving to be applied to the payment of the 
public debt, it would not take long to reduce it to very 
small proportions ; and it is a question whether the gov- 
ernment should not take steps to aid private enterprise 
— say by opening credits in a judicious way — to secure 
so very great an advantage. 

" In addition to the experiments to test its qualifi- 
cations for steam-raising purposes, a trial has lately 
been made with a view of seeing how the peat would 
answer for smelting purposes. Experienced gentlemen 
present, who watched the experiment with great interest, 
pronounced the castings to excel in toughness and 
quality of chill any specimens they had before seen. 

" With regard to the probabilities of a sufficient 
supply, peat is to be found in a great many localities, 
and in great abundance ; and, according to the official 
reports of the Geological Commission, in the following 
places throughout the Province : Sheffield, Caledonia, 
Gloucester, Huntley, Grenville, Harrington, Mille- 
Iles, St." Anne des Plaines, St. Sulpice, Lavaltrie, St. 
Maurice, Champlain, Lacolle, St. Dominique, Riviere 
Ouelle, Riviere du Loup (en bas), Dufresne, Sher- 
rington, Longueuil, and the Island of Anticosti. 

"In the last mentioned locality, the beds are very 
extensive. One of them possesses a superficies of not 
less than one hundred and sixty miles, and several 
others an extent of 4,000, 6,000 and 10,000 square 
acres respectively." 



MAINE. 101 

The " Montreal News," alluding to the efforts now 
being made to utilize peat, says, — 

" There is no social question that causes more anxiety 
to those friends of Canada who peer into the future 
than the difficulties of securing a supply of cheap fuel. 
Great suffering and privations are even now endured in 
old settlements in consequence of the destruction of the 
forests. In the houses of many a habitant who owns a 
good farm, the fires are put out at nine o'clock to econo- 
mize wood; roots are dug up, and branches gathered 
for fuel, which in by-gone years would have been reject- 
ed. Yet year by year the forest is falling back, and 
the price of an indispensable article of consumption 
rising in price." 

The supply of material from which to produce a 
superior fuel at small cost is nowhere more abundant 
than in Canada, and it will require only a moderate 
amount of enterprise and capital to place it in the 
market. 

Maine. 

Dr. C. T. Jackson, in his geological survey of this 
State, directed attention to the numerous valuable de- 
posits, or rather accumulations, of peat. 

At the localities which he designates, this substance 
may be most advantageously wrought for fuel. It is 
said by him to be found at the depth of three feet from 
the surface, amid the remains of rotten logs and beaver 
sticks ; showing that it belongs to the recent epoch. 
Some of the deposits are twenty feet in thickness, 
resting on white silicious sand. 

In one instance, coal is stated to have been found 
while digging a ditch to drain a bpg. He says, "On 
examination, I found that it was formed from the bark 



102 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OE FTEL. 

of some tree allied to the American fir, the structure 
of which may be readily discovered by polishing sec- 
tions of the coal, so that they may be examined by the 
microscope." His analysis shows that it contains — 

Bitumen 72 

Carbon 21 

Oxide of Iron 4 

Silica 1 

Ox. Manganese 2 

100 

K This substance is, therefore, a true bituminous coal, 
remarkable indeed for containing more bitumen than is 
found in any other coal known. I suppose it to have 
been formed by the chemical changes supervening upon 
fir balsam during its long immersion in the humid peat." 

This is a very interesting discovery ; and the same 
substance appears to exist in other peat-bogs of the 
State. 

The same author notices the accumulation of peat at 
Quoddy Head, near the south-east angle of the State. 
This deposit is fifteen feet in thickness, and is of an 
excellent quality for fuel. 

"The time may arrive, when, even in Maine, wood 
becoming scarce, her neglected peat-bogs will be resort- 
ed to for fuel ; though here, as in many other sections, 
were the superiority of the article over even wood or 
coal known and appreciated, the bogs would be worked 
now rather than to await the period at which, for lack 
of other fuel, their valuable deposits shall be drawn 
upon." 

Dr. Jackson adds, "There are so many localities of 
peat in Maine, that I have thought it hardly necessary to 
describe them, but would, however, point out localities 



NEW HAMPSHIRE. 103 

on the railroad route in Bangor, at Bluehill, near the 
Marsh Quarry in Thomaston, in the town of Limerick, 
and on the Coolidge Farm in Waterford. Near Lewis- 
ton also are very considerable deposits, which have been 
worked to s6me extent. These localities are among 
the most abundant, and may be most advantageously 
wrought for fuel, which may be used for the burning of 
lime and for domestic purposes." Valuable deposits are 
said to exist also in the vicinity of Portland, Augusta, 
Kennebunkport, and Bangor, and we learn of practical 
operations proposed in several of these localities for the 
coming season. 

The Island of Campo Bello, at the most easterly ex- 
tremity of the State, and now celebrated as the spot where 
Fenian squadrons were first "set in the field" during 
the late attempt to capture British North America, is 
said to have been recently sold for its "mineral re- 
sources ; " but it has since transpired that a very large 
proportion of the area is peat, of excellent and uniform 
quality, and it would seem to be a pertinent question, 
whether a small amount of capital invested in manufac- 
turing this material into fuel would not be likely to bring 
larger and quicker returns than a very large sum ex- 
pended in developing the "mineral resources." 

New Hampshire. 

In this State, peat has been used but very little as an 
article of fuel ; though, as an important ingredient in 
forming a compost, it is extensively used, and its value 
recognized. Deposits are numerous, and in some places 
are known to be of excellent quality for fuel ; as in 
Meredith, Canterbury, Rochester, and Franconia, espe- 
cially the three former. Valuable deposits are also found 



104 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

in Northumberland and vicinity, Whitefield, Littleton, 
Dublin, Warner, Franklin, Kingston, Lancaster, Lynde- 
borough, and other localities. 

Extensive deposits, some of them of superior quality, 
are found in Rockingham County ; and it is understood 
that the manufacture of fuel is to be undertaken on a 
large scale, in one or more localities within its limits, the 
coming season. 

Vermont. 

The Report on the Geology of Vermont, by Professor 
Hitchcock and Mr. A. D. Hagar, contains many items 
of interest concerning peat, from which we extract most 
of what follows. 

Peat-beds may be found in every town in the State. 
The number is so great that we shall not endeavor to 
enumerate them all. We will, however, mention some 
of special interest, mostly from the observations of Rev. 
S. R. HaU. 

The peat throughout the State, it is thought, will 
average about five feet in thickness, and is in many 
places covered with a growth of timber consisting of 
cedar, black ash, tamarack, spruce, and pine. Occa- 
sionally it is reported of great depth, as in the following, 
which is an extreme case : — 

In boring for water near Whiting Depot, on Otter 
Creek flats, ten miles south from Middlebury, they 
pierced through eighty feet of peat, and at seventy-two 
feet from the surface passed a sound log of wood. The 
land is now covered with a heavy growth of pine and 
ash, while under the roots of the standing timber are 
distinctly visible the decaying trunks of a former growth. 
How old is that bed of peat? 

In Albany, on the farm of ZuarRowell, east of Great 



YKKMONT. 105 

Hosmer's Pond, overlaying marl, is a bed of peat four 
feet thick, covering from six to ten acres. It is com- 
puted that each acre contains about one thousand five 
hundred cords of peat. 

On the land of G. W. Powers, in the south-east part 
of the town ; half a mile north, upon Mr. One's farm ; 
in the north-east part of the town, on land of Mr. 
Church, Mr. Hovey, and others, there is a large amount 
of peat. Near the new church there is a bed of peat, 
evolving sulphuretted hydrogen when disturbed. 

Peat is also described as abundant in the towns of An- 
dover, Barnet, Barre, Barton, Berlin, Bethel, Bradford, 
Brattleborough, Bridgewater, Brookfield, Brownington, 
Calais, Cavendish, Chelsea, Chester, Corinth, Coven- 
try, Craftsbury, Danville, Derby, Dummerston, Eden, 
Elmore, Glorr, Greensborough, Hancock, Hardwick, 
Hartford, Holland, Hydepark, Jamaica, Londonderry, 
Lowell, Ludlow, Marshfield, Montpelier, Moretown, 
Morristown, Newfane, Norwich, Peacham, Plymouth, 
Putney, Pownal, Randolph, Rochester, Rockingham, 
Royalton, Ryegate, St. Johnsbury, Springfield, Thet- 
ford, Townshend, Troy, Waitsfield, Walden, Wards- 
borough, Warren, Washington, Waterbury, Waterford, 
Weathersfield, Westminster, Westmore, Williamstown, 
Windsor, Woodbury, Woodstock, Wolcott, and Worces- 
ter. If particulars concerning these beds are desired, 
they will be found described as much, in the Second 
Geological Report of Professor Adams. 

Numerous, and in some cases very valuable, beds of 
marl are disposed in all parts of the State ; and the re- 
mark is made, that most of them are associated with 
beds of peat and other forms of organic vegetable 
matter. 

Many of the peat-beds are observed to occur in 



106 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

meadows formerly the haunts of beaver ; and numer- 
ous traces of the works of these busy little animals are 
discovered as excavations are made. 

It is an interesting fact, that one of the most remark- 
able fossils ever found in New England was discovered 
in a peat-bed in Vermont, on the line of the Rutland 
and Burlington Railroad. 

We allude to the remains of an elephant, which were 
found in Mount Holly in 1848. The following is Pro- 
fessor Thompson's description of it : — 

"The Rutland and Burlington Railroad crosses the 
Green Mountains, in the township of Mount Holly, at 
an elevation of one thousand four hundred and fifteen 
feet above the level of the ocean ; and the bones of the 
fossil elephant were found at that height. It was in 
a peat-bed, east of the summit station, that these bones 
were found. The basin in which the peat is situated 
appears to have been originally filled with water, and 
to have been a resort for beaver, a large proportion of 
the materials which formed the lower part of the peat 
consisting of billets of wood about eighteen inches long, 
which had been cut off at both ends, drawn into the 
water, and divested of the bark by the beaver, for 
food. The peat was fifteen feet deep before the exca- 
vation for the railroad was made. 

" In making this excavation, the workmen found, at 
the bottom of the bed, resting upon gravel, which sepa- 
rated it from the rock below, a huge tooth. The depth 
of the peat at that place was eleven feet. Soon after- 
wards, one of the tusks was found, about eighty feet 
from the place of the tooth above mentioned, which was 
a grinder. Subsequently, the other tusk and several of 
the other bones of the animdf were found near the same 
place. These bones and teeth were submitted to the 



VERMONT. 107 

inspection of Professor Agassiz, who pronounced them 
to be an extinct species of elephant. 

" The grinder is in an excellent state of preservation, 
and weighed eight pounds ; and the length of its grind- 
ing surface is about eight inches. The tusks are some- 
what decayed, and one of them badly broken. A cord 
drawn in a straight line from the base to the point of 
the most perfect tusk measures sixty inches ; and the 
longest perpendicular, let fall from that to the inner 
curve of the tusk, measures nineteen inches. The 
length of the tusk, measured along the curve on the 
outer surface, is eighty inches, and its greatest circum- 
ference twelve inches. The circumference has dimin- 
ished very much since the tusk was taken from the 
peat-bed, on account of shrinkage in drying ; and 
several longitudinal cracks have been found in it, ex- 
tending through its whole length ; and it was found 
necessary to wind it with wire to prevent it from split- 
ting to pieces." 

In 1858, the remains of another elephant were found 
in Richmond, which are now in the cabinet of Vermont 
University. 

So late as 2d Sept., 1865, the tusk of a fossil elephant 
was found in a peat-bed, about five feet below the sur- 
face, on the farm of D. S. Pratt, in Brattleborough, by 
a man who was excavating for compost. The following 
account of it is given in "The Vermont Becord" of 5th 
Sept. The tusk is forty-four inches in length, and 
eighteen inches in circumference at the largest end, and 
eleven inches at the smallest. It is in a fair state of 
preservation, although some parts of it crumbled after 
being exposed to the air. The workman, on discovering 
it, took a piece to Mr. Pratt, remarking, as he handed it 
to him, that he had found a curious piece of wood. 



108 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Mr. Pratt, on looking at it, discovered its true nature. 
This task belonged to a species of elephant long since 
extinct, supposed to be the Elephas Primogenius (or 
mammoth), Blumenbach, that inhabited the northern 
parts of North America, having wandered across the 
Siberian plains to the Arctic Ocean and Behring Straits, 
and beyond to this country south to about the parallel 
of forty degrees. Their bones show them to have been 
about twice the weight and one third taller than our 
modern species." 

Rev. S. R. Hall, in his Report on the Geology of 
Vermont, says, "Nearly all the peat or muck of Ver- 
mont would answer a good purpose for fuel ; but at 
present it is not needed. It would furnish an abun- 
dance of carburetted hydrogen, if employed for pro- 
ducing gas-light, much less expensive than coal, oil, or 
resin. The gas is harmless, inoffensive ; and has, in 
respect to healthfulness, great advantages over some 
other kinds." 

On the summit of Mansfield Mountain, in the town 
of Stowe, the highest point in the State, 4348 feet, are 
found beds of peat and the sphagnous moss that pro- 
duces them. This is one of the very few cases in Xew 
England where peat occurs at great elevation. In 
Europe, the cases are numerous. 

Massachusetts . 

In his Report on the Geology of Massachusetts, Dr. 
Hitchcock says, "Taking the State as a whole, peat is 
but little used, either as fuel or manure ; yet for both 
purposes its use is rapidly increasing, especially in the 
eastern part of the State, where fuel is more expensive. 
In view of its importance, I have made some efforts to 



MASSACHUSETTS. 109 

ascertain its probable amount in our swamps. But this 
is very difficult ; both because our swamps where it 
occurs have been but slightly explored, and because 
much is called merely mud that deserves the name of 
peat." 

He then proceeds to enumerate various localities 
where it is known to exist, and gives data for forming,, 
an approximate estimate of the amount of this deposit 
in the State, and adds, "It will be seen that scarcely 
any towns in the four western counties of the State are 
mentioned. This is partly explained by the fact that fuel 
is more plenty there than in the eastern counties, so that 
public attention has never been directed so much to our 
fossil resources. But I think it undeniable that the 
amount of good peat in the western counties is much 
less than in the eastern. 

"Although, -perhaps, the swamps abound as much in 
vegetable matter that would be useful in agriculture, 
yet it does not seem to be converted into genuine peat ; 
though I do not doubt that it will be easy to find a large 
amount of it when there is a demand for it. 

"Excluding these western counties, and taking the 
amount of peat given in the statements made to me as 
a fair average of its quantity in all the towns of the 
other counties (excluding the large towns), it would 
follow that eighty thousand acres, or one hundred and 
twenty-five square miles, are covered with peat in that 
portion of the State, having an average thickness of six 
feet four inches. This area and depth would yield not 
far from one hundred and twenty-one million of cords. 

"If this should be thought by any to exceed the 
quantity of good peat existing in that section, I pre- 
sume no one will consider it too high an estimate of the 



110 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

amount of swamps filled with vegetable matter. I pre- 
sume it falls far short of the true amount. 

" We hence get an enlarged view of the quantity of 
matter in the State that may be employed as fuel, or in 
agriculture, which has hitherto, except in some limited 
districts, remained almost untouched. 

" It is true that peat (unmanufactured) is not so con- 
venient and agreeable a kind of fuel as good wood or 
coal ; yet it certainly answers a very good purpose ; and 
the facts in the case tend to allay the apprehension 
which must sometimes rise in the mind of one who sees 
in the gradual diminution of our forests a future check 
to our prosperity and population. 

" It is gratifying to learn from so many towns that 
the inhabitants are awaking so much to the use of peat 
and peaty matter. Some gentlemen have even spoken 
of it as a ? peat fever.' I hope it has not yet reached 
its crisis." 

Recent personal experience, and considerable inter- 
course with numerous persons who have during the past 
season used solidified peat as fuel, has convinced us 
that Dr. Hitchcock underestimated the convenience and 
agreeableness of peat as compared with "good wood or 
coal." We consider it preferable by. far to either, in 
many respects. His remarks referred to the crude, 
unmanufactured article. 

The following list of towns where peat is known to 
exist includes those mentioned by Dr. Hitchcock, and 
others of which we have personal knowledge : — 

Abington, Athol, Bernardston, 

Acton, Barnstable, Billerica, 

Amesbury, Bedford, . Boylston, 

Andover, Bellingham, Brewster, 



MASSACHUSETTS. 



Ill 



Bridgewatef, * 
Buckland, 
Cambridge, 
Carver, 

Chelmsford, 

Chilmark, 

Cohasset, 

Concord, 

Dan vers, 

Dennis, 

Dighton, 

Dover, 

Duxbury, 

Eastham, 

Falmouth, 

Farmingham, 

Greenfield, 

Groton, 

Hadley, 

Halifax, 

Hamilton, 

Hanover, 

Hanson, 

Hingham, 

H olden, 

Hopkinton, 



Ipswich, 

Kingston, 

Lancaster, 

Leverett, 

Lexington, 

Longmeadow, 

Ludlow, 

Lunenburg, 

Lynnfield, 

Medfield, 

Med way, 

Methuen, 

Millbury, 

Milton, 

Nantucket, 

Natick, 

Needham, 

Newton, 

Northborough, 

Orleans, 

Oxford, 

Pittsfield, 

Randolph, 

Reading, 

Rowley, 



Roxbury, 

Seekonk, 

Southborough, 

South Reading, 

Sharon, 

Shrewsbury, 

Shutesbiuy, 

Spencer, 

Stoughton, 

Sudbury, 

Sunderland, 

Tisbury, 

Topsfield, 

Truro, 

Uxbridge, 

Wales & Holland, 

Walpole, 

Waltham, 

Watertown, 

Wellfleet, 

Westford, 

Weston, 

Wilmington, 

Wrentham, 

Yarmouth. 



In his " Geology of Massachusetts," 1833, Dr. Hitch- 
cock says of peat, " There are two varieties, the fibrous 
and the compact. In the former, the moss, turf, and 
roots, out of which peat is formed, have not lost their 
fibrous structure ; but in the latter they are converted 
into a compact and nearly homogeneous mass. 



112 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

" The fibrous and compact varieties projpably exist at 
nearly every locality. 

"I am sure of their occurrence in Cambridge, New- 
ton, and Lexington, and in large quantities. Peat is 
abundant in Seekonk, Uxbridge, Cohasset, Duxbury, 
Hingham, Medfield, Walpole, Wrentham, Dover, 
Framingham, Sudbury, Topsfield, Ipswich, and Nan- 
tucket. 

" It exists and has been dug, in greater or less quanti- 
ties, in Pittsfield, Hadley, Leverett, Shrewsbury, Lan- 
caster, Southborough, Hopkinton, Medway, Halifax, 
Stoughton, Boylston, Reading, Milton, Needham, Con- 
cord, Billerica, Bedford, Waltham, Watertown, Acton, 
Wilmington, Danvers, Chelmsford, Hamilton, and in 
nearly all the towns in Barnstable County ; certainly 
in Yarmouth, Brewster, Orleans, Eastham, TVellfleet, 
and Truro. 

" I cannot but regard the existence of so large quan- 
tities of peat on Cape Cod and Nantucket as a great 
blessing to the inhabitants ; yet, from the little of it 
which I observe to be dug there, I am apprehensive 
they do not realize its value. 

" Not a town in the State can be named where more 
or less peat does not exist. The eastern section, how- 
ever, is certainly best stored with those varieties that 
may be employed for fuel ; and it is an unexpected fact, 
that the south-east part of the State, which abounds 
with sand, contains also a large amount of peat. 

" The beds of peat on Nantucket, and the small ad- 
jacent Island Thuckanuck, Muskegut, and Gravel, con- 
tain, according to a report of Lieutenant Prescott, six 
hundred and fifty acres of peat from one to fourteen 
feet thick, and generally of good quality. This must 
afford an inexhaustible supply of fuel for the inhabit- 



MASSACHUSETTS. 113 

ants ; and yet I was surprised to learn that so little use 
was made of it." 

AVe are told of a deposit of peat at Barnstable, rest- 
ing upon a thick bed or matting of cranberry vines, the 
vines and berries still preserving their original form 
until brought to the surface and exposed to the sun 
and air. 

We have ourselves seen at Lexington, Mass., a rich 
deposit of pure black peat, six feet in depth, resting 
upon a compact bed of clean moss, of the consistency 
of wet hay, and retaining its light green color. 

It is a curious fact also, and worthy of note, that, 
along the coast in the south-east part of the State, the 
remains of ancient forests, now submerged, are not 
uncommon. 

This is the case in the harbor of Nantucket, as re- 
ported by Lieutenant Jona. Prescott, who superintended 
the dredging of that harbor. Portions of cedar, maple, 
oak, and beach trees were found, some of them in an 
erect position, accompanied by peat. Another sub- 
marine forest exists at Holmes Hole. Near the south- 
west extremity of the Vineyard, we learn of another. 
On the north side of Cape Cod also, opposite Yarmouth, 
cedar stumps are found, extending more than three 
miles into Barnstable Bay. The same thing is said to 
occur in the bay of Provincetown, on the side opposite 
the village. 

Professor Lyell, in his second visit to the United 
States, mentions a submerged forest "at Hampton, on 
the way from Boston to Portsmouth ; ' also one near 
Portsmouth, N. H., "now submerged at low water, 
containing the roots and upright stools of the white 
cedar, showing that an ancient forest must once have 
extended farther seaward." In his first visit to North 
8 



114 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

America he mentions a submerged forest, somewhat 
similar, near Fort Cumberland, in Nova Scotia. He 
records other observations in relation to submerged 
trees at the mouth of Cooper River, near Charleston, 
S, C, and of the Altamaha, in Georgia. 

A letter from Elias Phinney, Esq., of Lexington, 
dated Jan. 30, 1839, and addressed to Dr. C. T. Jack- 
son, upon the subject of peat, has been many times 
referred to, and so often quoted that it may be regarded 
as authority. It will be found copied entire in the 
Report of the New York Survey, submitted by Dr. 
\Y. W. Mather, in December, 1839 ; and in the Geo- 
logical and Agricultural Report of Rhode Island, 1840. 

A few extracts from it will be of interest here : " I 
consider my peat-grounds by far the most valuable part 
of my farm ; more valuable than my wood-lots for fuel, 
and more than double the value of an equal number of 
acres of my uplands for purposes of cultivation. 

" In the first place, they are valuable for fuel. I have, 
for twenty years past, resorted to my peat-meadows 
for fuel. It gives a summer-like atmosphere, and 
lights a room better than a wood-fire. The smoke from 
peat has no irritating effect upon the eyes, and does not, 
in the slightest degree, obstruct respiration, like the 
smoke of wood : and it has none of that drying, un- 
pleasant effect of a coal-fire. The ashes of peat are not 
more troublesome, and are less injurious to the furniture 
of a room, than the ashes of coal. 

" The best peat is found in meadows which have for 
many years been destitute of trees and brush, and well 
drained, and where the surface has become so dry, and 
the accumulation of decayed vegetable matter so great, 
that but little grass or herbage of any description is seen 
upon the surface. 



MASSACHUSETTS. 115 

"A rod square, cut two spittings deep, each spitting 
of the length of eighteen inches, will give three cords 
when dried. It may be cut from May to September. 
If the weather in autumn be very dry, the best time for 
cutting will be from the middle of August to the middle 
of September. If cut in the latter part of summer or 
early in autumn, it dries more gradually, and is not so 
liable to crack and crumble as when cut early in sum- 
mer. It is considered a day's work for a man, a boy, 
and a horse, to cut out and spread a rod square. It will 
require about four weeks of dry weather to render it fit 
to be housed for use. 

" Peat taken from land which has been many years 
drained, when dried, is nearly as heavy as oak-wood, 
and bears about the same price in the market." 

As early as 1815, the subject of peat as an article of 
fuel was by some considered of so much importance, 
that Dr. Aaron Dexter, President of the Massachusetts 
Agricultural Society, submitted to the trustees a paper 
which he had prepared upon the . subject, being an 
abridgment of a work jn two volumes, by Dr. Robert 
Rennie, of Kilsyth, in Scotland, accompanied by some 
remarks upon the valuable deposits in our own State, 
and the importance of improving them. The paper was 
published ; and from it we make the following discon- 
nected extracts : — 

" Peat-water possesses astringent, antiseptic qualities. 
Rain or river water, when allowed to stagnate, espe- 
cially in warm weather, becomes putrid : peat-water 
does not. 

" Rosier observes that the air of peat-mosses is always 
salubrious ; that, by a wonderful provision of Nature, 
oxygen is exhaled, and hydrogen absorbed ; and, by 
reason of the low temperature of the moss, carbonic 



116 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

acid is not evolved, so that by this means the air is never 
infected with these deleterious gases. 

" Carr, in his ! Stranger in Ireland,' mentions that this 
is the case in that country. Dr. Walker makes a simi- 
lar remark. He says, f Stagnant rain-water, especially 
in warm weather, occasions, in fenny countries, inter- 
mittent fevers and putrid diseases, whereas no such 
effects are felt from stagnant moss-water.' The moors 
and mosses in Scotland, and the turf-bogs in Ireland, 
are inhabited by as healthy people as any in the world. 
No intermittent fevers, no putrid sore throats, prevail 
among them. M. de Luc makes the same remark. He 
says, 'Over the whole continent of Europe, which I 
examined, the air of the mosses, even in the lowest val- 
leys, is very salubrious. The inhabitants of these dis- 
tricts are remarkably healthy : they are not liable to the 
fever and ague which prevails in other low level lands 
in their immediate vicinity, where there are no mosses.' 
The oxygen they discharge must purify the air, and pro- 
mote the health of those who inhabit such districts. 

" Some peat, when dug, becomes so hard, so heavy, 
and so glossy in the fracture, that it is with difficulty it 
can be distinguished from some of the softer coals. On 
the contrary, Mr. Williams says that he has seen coal 
so soft, that it was with difficulty it could be distin- 
guished from the hard, black, glossy peat. 

" There are the strongest reasons for supposing that 
all coal has been at one period of its formation in a soft, 
pulpy state, like the above species of peat when newly 
dug ; that coal, wherever it has been discovered, has 
certainly been exposed to a degree of mechanical pres- 
sure far beyond that which was ever applied to peat by 
art. It would be superfluous to offer any proof of this ; 
and, if the best peat was subjected to the same degree 



RHODE ISLAND. 117 

of compression, it is obvious that it would become 
equally compact and equally heavy, bulk for bulk, and 
equally as inflammable as coaj ; in no respect distin- 
guishable from that substance, in color, consistency, or 
chemical qualities. The external appearance of coal 
shows its alliance to peat in color and consistency : the 
resemblance is often clear." 

Rhode Island. 

Dr. Jackson, in his Report on the Geological and 
Agricultural Survey of this State, says, "Peat and 
swamp muck occur in almost every town in the State ; " 
and goes on at considerable length to give his views in 
regard to the value of both, the former as fuel, and both 
as fertilizers. 

He mentions the following localities in which peat 
of excellent quality for fuel is found, as shown by 
analysis, statements of which are incorporated in his 
report : — 

Block Island, North Kingston, Warwick, 

Bristol, Nyatt, Woonsocket, 

Cranston, Pawtuxet, Wickford. 

Cumberland, South Kingston, 

We also learn of extensive deposits, of excellent qual- 
ity, in the immediate vicinity of Providence ; arrange- 
ments are being made to work some of them on a pretty 
large scale, and there can be little doubt that the already 
extensive and prosperous manufacturing interests of the 
State will be largely promoted by this newly-found 
source of fuel. 



118 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 



Connecticut. 

This State is rich in deposits of peat; and although, 
until recently, little use has been made of it except for 
agricultural purposes, her people are among the earliest 
to perceive the importance of putting it to practical ac- 
count in the shape of fuel, and to avail themselves of 
the methods of manufacturing it : and it can hardly be 
matter of surprise now, if the little State which has so 
long enjoyed the reputation of making nutmegs from 
beech-wood should succeed even better in producing a 
solid fuel from her hitherto worthless and neglected 
bogs. 

Professor S. W. Johnson, of Yale College, in an 
exceedingly interesting and valuable essay on peat and 
muck, especially as relates to their nature and agricul- 
tural uses, — which was published at Hartford some 
years since, but is now, as we are informed, out of 
print, — gave an amount of information upon the sub- 
ject, which it is to be regretted should have been 
limited in the extent of its circulation to a single small 
edition.* In addition to a thorough treatment of the 
whole subject, as relates to the use of peat for agri- 
cultural purposes, he had been at considerable pains to 
obtain somewhat detailed statements concerning the 
character and extent of peat-beds in different parts of 
the State, with their several peculiarities of formation, 
location, elevation, surroundings, &c. ; and accompa- 

* The work has recently been revised and enlarged, and under 
the title of "Peat and its Uses as Fertilizer and Fuel, by Samuel W. 
Johnson, M. A., Professor of Analytical and Agricultural Chemistry, 
Yale College," is published by Orange Judd & Co., 41 Park Row, 
New York. 1866. Price, $1.25. 



CONNECTICUT. 119 

nied it with report of analyses of numerous specimens 
obtained from the bogs described. 

These show clearly that there are stores of good peat 
within the State, although there are some meadows, 
which, from their peculiar situation, have been sub- 
jected to so much wash of earthy matter from the sur- 
rounding hills, that the fuel to be produced from these 
would necessarily be of a somewhat inferior quality. 

He mentions peat-beds in Goshen, Milford, Plain- 
ville, Berlin, Griswold, Colebrook, Cornwall, Granby, 
Brooklyn, Poquonock, Collinsville, New Haven, Rock- 
ville, Stonington, New Canaan, and Salisbury. We 
might add Hartford, Bridgeport, Meriden, Somers, 
Broad Brook, New London, Willimantic, Waterford, 
and numerous other localities, of which we have had 
more or less personal knowledge. Certain it is, that 
some of the finest specimens of peat we have ever seen, 
and best adapted for fuel, have come from meadows in 
Connecticut. 

Preparations, in some places quite extensive, are being 
made for the manufacture of fuel the coming season ; 
and, while the demand for domestic purposes will doubt- 
less absorb a very considerable portion of the product 
of the first season, the numerous manufacturing estab- 
lishments and railroads, some of which are in close 
proximity to large beds of very pure peat, will doubt- 
less, without much delay, discover its value and econ- 
omy for their several requirements, and thereby create 
a demand which can be supplied only by constantly 
extending works. 

These deposits of peat are a source of wealth to in- 
dividuals and the State, the extent of which, it is pre- 
sumed, few will comprehend until the developments now 
in progress shall have begun to demonstrate it. 



120 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 



New York. 

In the several Geological Reports of this State, made 
by Professor Mather, Mr. Vanuxem, and Dr. Emmons, 
special mention is made of the rich deposits of peat, 
and the certainty, that, sooner or later, they will un- 
doubtedly prove to be of great value for the production 
of fuel. 

A great number of localities are indicated and esti- 
mates made of the amount of peat " on deposit." 

Dr. Emmons furnishes some particulars of peat 
within his district, points out the high economical value 
which he considers must attach to it as a combustible, 
and says, " Perhaps it would be saying too much to 
assert that peat is more valuable than coal : but when 
we consider, that, for creating heat, it is not very in- 
ferior to bituminous coal ; that it contains a gaseous 
matter equal in illuminating power to oil or coal-gas ; 
that its production is equally cheap ; and, in addition to 
this, that it is a valuable manure if properly prepared, 
— its real and intrinsic worth cannot fall far short of 
the poorer kinds of coal." 

It should be borne in mind that these remarks refer 
to the article in its crude, unmanufactured state. It 
will, we anticipate, be found that the manufactured and 
condensed peat produced by the method recently intro- 
duced, is, for many purposes of domestic use, but es- 
pecially for steam, and in the manufacture of iron and 
steel, superior to any other kind of fuel now in use. 

This statement will undoubtedly be considered an 
extravagant one ; but facts which are daily coming to 
our notice are fast conspiring to demonstrate that such 
is the case. 



m:\v YORK. 121 

Dr. Mather, in his report iu 1838, says, "During 
the surveys of the past season, I have collected specimens 
of peat from various localities. Some of them, now 
when dry, are compact enough to receive a slight 
polish, and have as great a specific gravity as bituminous 
coal, and would probably give out as much heat." 

In his report in 1839 on New York, Westchester, 
and Putnam counties, he says, " Peat is now coming 
into use as a fuel, and must, before many years, be ex- 
tensively employed for this purpose, in this part of the 
country, where coal and wood are so expensive. The 
marshes of the Hudson River, in these counties, that 
will yield peat, may be estimated at 1000 acres, with a 
yield of 2000 cords per acre, or 2,000,000 cords. 
These include those near Sing Sing, Verplanck, Peeke- 
ville, Anthony's Nose, Constitution Island, and numer- 
ous smaller ones. The peat in some of these marshes, 
where it was examined, is of inferior quality, fibrous, 
and contains much earthy matter. That formed in 
marshes in the interior of those counties is of much 
better quality, and far superior as an article of fuel." 
And later, in 1840, he writes : " I would again urge 
upon our farmers and other citizens the importance of 
making use of peat for fuel. It is a cheap and valuable 
fuel ; and, when properly prepared, it also makes one 
of the best renovators of the soil. Peat is equal in 
value to oak-wood, bulk for bulk." 

Rev. Mr. Shafter, of New York, says, "The peat, 
by drying, acquires a high degree of solidity. It is 
easily kindled, burns with a bright flame, yields a bluish 
smoke, and produces an odor similar to that which at- 
tends the combustion of gramineous substances. But 
this is momentary. When thoroughly kindled, it burns 
with less flame, yields a small proportion of blackish 



122 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

smoke, and sulphurous acid gas is evolved, though I 
cannot discover any pyrites. It burns for a long time, 
and emits a great body of heat. It leaves a very small 
proportion of light and grayish- white ashes. I cannot 
refrain from expressing my opinion that this variety of 
peat will answer as an excellent substitute for the best 
Liverpool coal." 

Professor E. Emmons says, " From the abundance 
of peat in this State, it appears that the climate and 
other circumstances are favorable to its production. It 
is not so hot as to cause a rapid decomposition of vege- 
table matter, nor so cold as to prevent those changes, 
somewhat allied to fermentation, which are required for 
its formation. 

"Contrary to expectations, I find it in great abun- 
dance in the counties of Clinton, Warren, and Hamil- 
ton ; and I may state, in general, that most of the flies 
in those counties abound in this substance. 

"The only places where it can occur are those of 
a marshy character, and the substance itself may be 
tested by any person by first drying and then igniting 
it. If it burns, it is peat. As its presence may be 
suspected in all low, wet places, especially those bor- 
dering on ponds and lakes, it will be well to search for 
it in all such places by thrusting down a pole or stick, 
and trying the matter that adheres to it, as it regards 
its combustibility ; or it may generally be found wher- 
ever the surface of the ground is easily agitated by * 
passing over it. One of the largest collections of this 
substance, which has fallen under my observation, is in 
Champlain, in the county of Clinton. The peat marsh 
or fly to which I refer is in the west part of the town, 
and is about two or two and a half miles in length, and 
from a half to three fourths of a mile in width. Over 



NEW YORK. 123 

the whole extent of this fly, a pole may be thrust down 
from twelve to thirty feet, and probably in many places 
to twice thirty feet. It is, of course, nearly inexhausti- 
ble. Others of nearly equal extent occur in the county, 
and many which are less extensive. One fact which 
applies to all the peat-marshes of this neighborhood is, 
that they are situated far above the level of the lake, 
and that those marshes which are on or near the same 
level as the lake do not contain peat. 

"Peat, as is well known, answers a good purpose for 
fuel, and undoubtedly ranks next to coal for sustaining 
for a long time a high temperature. There is no sub- 
stance which would remove so much suffering among 
the poor as the general introduction of this substance 
for fuel in our larger towns and cities. Its abundance 
and cheapness recommend it to the attention of the 
public ; and if measures could be devised to bring it 
into use in this State, many important results would 
follow." 

The following are some of the most valuable localities 
in the State, though there may be many others of equal 
or greater importance : — 

A large portion of what was once a part of Peat Marl 
Pond, four miles north of Kinderhook, is filled with 
peat, and has become a marsh. Other parts of this 
pond are filling with the same combustible and with 
shell marl. It is estimated that sixty or seventy acres 
of this pond and marsh are filled with peat. It has 
probably a mean depth of at least six feet, and ought 
to yield sixty thousand cords of good peat. 

A small bog, of about six acres, is on the farm of 
Cornelius P. Van Allen, three miles north of Kinder- 
hook. The peat is of fine quality, at the depth of two 
t'cet from the surface. It has a mean depth of about 



124 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

nine feet, and ought to yield nine thousand cords of 
good peat. 

Another, similar to the above, in the north part of 
Stuyvesant, contains about the same quantity. 

Round Pond, in the north part of Kinderhook, con- 
tains two thousand to three thousand cords. 

The marshes and shallows of Kinderhook Lake prob- 
ably contain twenty thousand to thirty thousand cords. 

A small bog between this lake and North Chatham 
contains perhaps two or three acres of peat. 

In the marsh west of the post-road, one mile north 
from Kinderhook, there is said to occur a considerable 
quantity of peat. 

The marsh belonging to Mr. Lucas Hoes, one mile 
south-west of Kinderhook, near the post-road on the 
east side, . contains about thirty acres, with a mean 
depth of six feet. 

Several other localities are said to occur in the valley 
of Kinderhook Creek, between Kinderhook Village and 
Stuyvesant town-line. 

A peat-bog is also said to occur two miles north-east 
of Yalatie. 

Peat-bogs occur in many places in New Lebanon, 
among which may be mentioned those on Mr. Gillett's 
and the adjoining farms, and on Mr. Tilden's. 

Another, south of Mr. Carpenter's, of fifteen acres, 
and three to twelve feet deep. 

Another, south of Fitch & Kirby's store, owned by 
Mr. Waite, of about thirty acres. 

Peat .occurs near the west side of Canaan Mountain, 
around Adgate's Pond. The a": ore orate amount in this 
township is probably four hundred thousand cords. 

Peat occurs on Eowland Story's farm, a quarter of a 
mile east of Lafayette Corners, in Milan. 



NEW YOUK. 125 

A bog of peat, five or six acres, with a depth of five 
or six feet, occurs a mile and a half east of Upper Red 
Hook. 

Another between Storm ville and Hopewell. 

Several bogs between Hopewell and Fishkill appear 
to be peat-bogs. They contain probably an aggregate 
surface of forty acres. 

A peat-bog of five or six acres is located about a mile 
and a half from Stormville, on the road to Beekman. 

An extensive peat-bog extends north from Long Pond 
down the valley of its outlet. 

A large body of peat is said to exist on Mr. Legget's 
farm, in Ghent. 

Peat probably exists in the marsh east of Great Nutten 
Hook. 

Extensive deposits are found a mile or two west of 
Maiden. 

Two or three small peat-bogs occur in the south part 
of the town of Ghent. They may contain ten or fifteen 
acres. 

A small marsh of ligneous peat occurs about a mile 
and a half north of Hillsdale. 

There is an extensive peat-bog on Lawrence Smith's 
and the adjoining farms in Amenia. Professor Cassels 
reports it to have an area of about one hundred and fifty 
acres, containing probably one hundred and fifty thou- 
sand cords. 

He also reports that there is a peat-bog four miles 
north-east of Dover, on the east side of the creek ; 
another, one mile south of the above ; another, one 
mile south of the last mentioned; one also two miles 
south of Dover ; and one eight miles south of Dover. 
These contain an aggregate of probably seventy-five 
thousand cords. 



126 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Extensive peat-bogs are found east of Elbow Moun- 
tain, which lies east and north-east of Dover. They are 
in the valley through which the road passes from Kline 
Corners to the Columbia Furnace, in Kent. The north- 
ern one is about three quarters of a mile long, and two 
hundred to three hundred yards wide, with an unknown 
depth. Its depth was measured in several places, and 
it was generally five feet deep within five rods of its 
edge. It was once a lake, now filled with peat. Its 
mean depth may probably be placed at nine feet, its 
area at sixty acres, and its contents at ninety thousand 
cords. 

The other bog south of this probably contains forty 
acres, with a depth of six feet ; and its contents may be 
estimated at forty thousand cords. 

Peat is found abundantly in the vicinity of Pine 
Plains, and some of it is of very good quality. A 
small bog is observed one mile south of Pine Plains. 
Cranberry Marsh and Cedar Swamp, near Stessing 
Pond, are filled with peat. It is rapidly forming in 
some parts of Stessing Pond. 

Peat is forming on Woodward's farm, in Copake. In 
Taghkanic, about a mile and a half or two miles west 
of Crysler's Pond, a peat-bog occurs of thirty or forty 
acres. 

From descriptions of the drowned lands in Aucrain, 
it is probable that peat abounds there. This marsh has 
an area of several hundred acres. 

The marsh in the valley of Stessing Pond contains a 
great body of peat : probably five hundred acres are 
underlaid by it, two yards deep ; and its contents may 
be estimated at five hundred thousand cords. 

On Mr. Hoag's farm, in Stanford, considerable peat 
is found. Professor Cassels reports that an extensive 



NEW YORK. 127 

bed of peat occurs three miles east of Poughkeepsie. It 
is on the farm of Peter Van Voorhis, and contains about 
twenty-five acres. It is quite deep. 

A small bos* occurs near the red school-house, about 
two miles from Union Corners, in Dutchess County. 
Professor Cassels thinks the bog is deep. 

In Clinton, four miles east of Union Corners, is a 
peat-bog of about sixty-five acres. It is on the land of 
Messrs. Underwood & Denison, and contains about 
sixty thousand cords. 

A large deposit of peat was observed by Professor 
Cassels, two miles south of Union Corners, on the land 
of Elias Tompkins. It was estimated by him at ninety 
acres. 

Mr. Merrick observed a small peat-bog, about two 
miles north of Hurd's Corner, in Pawling, containing 
probably five thousand cords. 

Another, of nearly sixty acres, in the south-east part 
of Stanford, with a depth of about six feet. 

Shaw Pond and Mud Pond, between Stanford and 
Washington, and Round Pond, in Washington, are fill- 
ing up with peaty matter. 

Rev. Mr. Shafter, of New York, observed peat in 
Rhinebeck, Northeast, and Clinton, in 1817. 

It may be estimated that there are five square miles 
of peat in the salt marshes of Westchester, or three 
thousand two hundred acres, which will yield upon an 
average one thousand cords of peat of the second quality 
to the acre, or, in round numbers, three million two 
hundred thousand cords. The marshes of the Hudson 
River in New York, Westchester and Putnam Coun- 
ties, that will yield peat, may be estimated at one thou- 
sand acres, with a yield of two thousand cords per acre, 
or two million cords. These include those near Sing 



128 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Sing, Verplanck, Peekskill, Anthony's Nose, Constitu- 
tion Island, and numerous smaller ones. The peat in 
most of these marshes is supposed to be of inferior 
quality, fibrous, and containing much earthy matter. 
That formed in marshes in the interior of those counties 
is of much better quality, and far superior as an article 
of fuel. 

On Joshua Raymond's farm, one fourth of a mile west 
of Bedford, in Westchester County, Professor Cassels 
reports that there is a peat-bog of sixty acres. 

Also on Abraham Underbill's farm, two and a 
half miles south of Crumb Pond Village, Westchester 
County, Professor Cassels reports fifty acres, averaging 
twenty feet in depth. 

A peat-bog of thirty or forty acres lies near the east 
side of Mahopack Pond, in Putnam County. 

A large peat-bog was observed near Patterson, Put- 
nam County. 

A peat-bog of six or eight acres was observed in 
Phillipston, on the Phillips estate, about two miles east- 
north-east of West Point. 

Another, on the same estate, about eight miles from 
Cold Springs, on the turnpike road to Putnam Court 
House, may contain fifteen or twenty acres. • 

Another, on the road from Putnam Court House, to 
Patterson, in Putnam County. 

Another, four miles south-east of Peeks ville, of six 
or eight acres. 

Another, about one mile south of Scrub-Oak Plains, 
Westchester County. 

Another, east of Stewart's iron mine, at the base of 
the hill. 

Another, half a mile south of this mine, in the town 
of Phillipston. 



NEW YORK. 129 

Another, near Davenport's Corners, five miles north- 
east of Cold Springs. 

Another, half a mile west of Saxon Smith's, in the 
south-south-east part of Phillipston. 

There is said to be a fine deposit of about one hun- 
dred and fifty acres east of Croton, and about four miles 
south-east from Sumerstown Plains. 

Several of the salt marshes in this region contain peat, 
mostly fibrous, and of inferior quality. That of finer 
texture and quality may probably be found at a depth 
of four or five feet. A moderate estimate of peat of 
second quality in these salt marshes would be five hun- 
dred thousand cords. 

A peat-bog of about forty acres was examined by Pro- 
fessor Cassels, about one mile south of the Long Clove, 
in Rockland County. It is on land of Isaac B. Van 
Houten, and is supposed to have a mean depth of six 
feet. 

Another is in the valley of the Hackensack River, 
about two miles west of Nyack, and contains about fifty 
acres, with a mean depth of six feet. 

Peat, a few acres in extent, was observed by Pro- 
fessor Cassels at the north end of Rockland Lake. 

Professor Cassels reports a peat-bog of forty acres on 
land of John Snediker, one mile south-west of Snedi- 
ker's Landing, with an average depth of six feet of good 
peat. This peat-bog has been wrought for the New 
York market. It was opened during the summer 
of 1838,— 

The proprietor receiving ... 25 cents per chaldron. 

The cartage to dock, 37^ " " 

Freight to New York, .... 37^- " " 

Expense of digging and curing, . 50 " " 

$1.50 



130 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

It has been sold in New York at $3 per chaldron, or 
$4.50 per cord. 

Professor Cassels observed a bog of fifty acres of peat 
between the lower village of Clarkston and the Hack- 
ensack River. Its average depth is stated to be six 
feet. It is on lands of William O. Blines, Levi J. 
Gurnee, and others. 

Extensive peat-bogs were observed on the mountain, 
near the turnpike from Haverstraw to Munroe Works. 
One contains about forty acres, another about fifty acres. 

Some other smaller bogs were seen, containing perhaps 
twenty thousand cords . Another was seen in the valley of 
Stony Brook, containing, probably, ten thousand cords. 

At the north end of Long Pond, near the west line 
of Rockland County, a deposit of peat was observed. 

A peat-bog of about ten acres occurs about one mile 
south-west of Stony Point. 

Several small peat-bogs were observed near Fort 
Montgomery, that in the aggregate may contain ten 
thousand cords. There is a small one south of Fort 
Putnam, and near it ; another south-east ; another south- 
west ; all within one fourth of a mile. 

A peat-meadow occurs on the mountain, half a mile 
west of Round Pond, Hye miles south-west of West 
Point, on land of Mr. Wilkins, and contains ten thou- 
sand cords. 

A small peat-bog was seen between the Limestone 
Ledge and Duck Cedar Pond, in Warwick, and may 
contain four thousand cords. Another was seen near 
the Patterson Mine. 

Another near the Crossway Mine, and another east 
of the Starling Mine. 

Another, of sixty to one hundred acres, in the valley 
of Smith's Clove, between Wike's and Galloway's. 



NEW YORK. 131 

A peat-bog lies west of Townsend's ore bed, in Can- 
terbury, and contains ten thousand cords. 

In the slate and graywacke region of Orange County, 
peat is everywhere abundant ; and the localities are so 
numerous, that it would be tedious to enumerate them. 
The drowned lands, the Graycourt Meadows, and the 
Black Meadows, are the most extensive of these depos- 
its. The former marsh is most extensive, and contains 
seventeen thousand acres. At a low estimate, there 
must be twenty-five thousand acres of peat-bogs in 
Orange and Rockland Counties that have not been es- 
timated ; and we may calculate, in round numbers, that 
they contain twenty-five million cords of peat. 

In the drowned lands, several thousand acres are cov- 
ered with this substance : it is from three feet to several 
yards in depth, and, on trial, proves to be a good fuel. 

The Graycourt Meadows, lying in Goshen and Bloom- 
ing Grove, contain five hundred acres of peat, several 
feet in depth. It exists in great abundance in War- 
wick, Minisink, Goshen, Monroe, Cornwall, Blooming 
Grove, New Winsor, Newburg, Montgomery, Hamp- 
tonburg, Crawford, Walkill, and Mount Hope ; all the 
towns in the county, except Deerpark. In this latter 
town the quantity is small. The quantity in the county 
is unusually large in proportion to its extent ; perhaps 
as much or more so than any other county in the State. 
It would require a great amount of time to ascertain 
the number of acres. It is perfectly inexhaustible. If 
its consumption for fuel ever becomes as general as it is 
in some parts of Europe, the Graycourt Meadows and 
drowned lands would prove a source of immediate and 
immense revenue to their proprietors. 

Many smaller deposits of this substance are found in 
the towns of Schroon, Chester, Warrensburg, Johns- 



132 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

burg, QueensJburg, Lake Pleasant, and Wells, varying 
in extent from one to five acres. 

The summits of the Delaware and Hudson Canal, 
between TVurtzkorough and Eed Bridge, in Sullivan 
County, contain about fifty thousand cords. 

A marsh extending down the valley of the Basher's 
Kill, from near \Yurtzborough towards Cuddebackville, 
contains a thousand acres. 

A bog a few miles west of Ellenville is said to con- 
tain about one hundred acres. 

The bog in the valley of Three Brooks, south of Mon- 
ticello, about four hundred acres. 

The marsh one mile south-west of Monticello, belong- 
ing to Hon. Mr. Jones and others, about fifty acres. 

The marsh half a mile south-west of Monticello, 
belonging to Hon. Mr. Jones, eight acres. 

The marsh half a mile west of Monticello, belonging 
to Hon. Mr. Jones, say ten acres. 

Several marshes between Monticello and Bridgeville, 
on the Xeversink, perhaps fifty acres in all. 

Bog between Dashville and Esopus, on the north end 
of the Passant Binnewater, say forty acres. 

Bog one mile north of the above, on the north branch 
of the south fork of Black Creek, in Palts, Ulster 
County, perhaps ten acres. 

Bogs on Black Creek, near the Poughkeepsie and 
Palts Turnpike, about fifty acres. 

Bog in the valley of the east branch of the Delaware, 
in Roxbury, Delaware County, on Mr. Straton's farm, 
about ten acres. 

Bog in Marlborough, on the south road from Marl-, 
borough to Pleasant Valley, on land of G. Birdsal, 
Mrs. Bingham, and D. Cassman, in Ulster County, 
about twenty acres. 



NEW YORK. 133 

A few deposits of this substance have been discovered 
in Otsego County, on the farm of Mr. Clark. Two 
miles south of Cooperstown is a small peat-swamp, 
nearly surrounded by alluvial hills, covering an area of 
six acres. The peat is apparently of good quality, and 
may be made accessible with little expense. Several 
other small marshes of a similar character are found in 
this neighborhood. On the road from Cooperstown, 
west towards Oakville, are several small deposits. Two 
miles south of New Berlin, on the east side of Madilla, 
is a peat-swamp, covering an area of forty-five or fifty 
acres. This is the most extensive deposit of the kind 
of which we have any knowledge in this region. Its 
depth is unknown : in several places a pole was thrust 
down ten feet. It is probably much deeper. 

In the towns of Great Valley and Little Valley, the 
"sags," or depressions in which the clay is formed, con- 
tain more or less extensive bodies of peat. The largest 
is upon the land of Mr. Sweetland. About ten acres 
are spread over by the bog ; and the depth of peat varies 
from a foot or two near the margin to more than twelve 
towards the centre. 

About ten acres between Reed's Mineral Spring and 
Argyle, in Washington County ; fifty acres at the south 
end of Summit Lake, in South Argyle, and one or two 
other deposits, comprising perhaps thirty acres, in the 
same town ; twenty-five acres on A. McNeil's farm, in 
N. Greenwich ; ten acres on P. Reynolds's farm in the 
same town. About one hundred acres lie between N. 
Argyle and Hartford ; seventy acres one mile south-east 
from N. Greenwich ; ten acres in Greenwich, about a 
mile and a half south-west from Lakeville ; and proba- 
bly about four hundred cr five hundred acres in various 
places in Greenwich, about a mile south from Lakeville ; 



134 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

ten acres on Stephen Durham's farm ; and about ten 
acres on Simeon Burton's land, in Easton. In Salem, 
about three miles north from the village, is a tract of 
about one hundred and sixty acres ; and about four 
miles north-east from the village is a tract of one hun- 
dred and thirty acres. In "West Hebron we find about 
twenty acres, two miles south-west from the village ; and 
in Kingsbury, on the Champlain Canal, lie something 
like a thousand acres. At Fort Ann, two miles north- 
east from Mount Hope Furnace, is about thirty acres ; 
and between the two lakes south of Mount Hope lie 
about fifty acres. In Dresden are several deposits, 
amounting to about one hundred acres. In Putnam, 
four miles north-west from the ferry, there are about 
thirty acres. In Greenbush, on the Boston Turnpike, 
is a small deposit ; and another of a few acres on land 
of Mr. Clark, at Coyeman's, three miles from New Bal- 
timore, in Albany County. In Hamilton County, Mar- 
ion River, about seven miles in length, connects the 
Eckford Lakes with Racket Lake : it passes through an 
immense marsh containing an inexhaustible quantity of 
peat, and upon which, as in numerous other localities, 
there is a great amount of tamarack, especially valuable 
for ship-timber. 

Bones of the mastodon were found in 1790 and 1800 
in the town of Montgomery, about twelve miles from 
Newburg, in Orange County, ten feet below the surface, 
in & peat-bog in marl. Several bones of the legs, some 
of the vertebrae, several ribs, and some of the bones 
of the head, were obtained. One of the leg-bones 
measures more than forty inches round the joint, and 
thirty-six on the cylindrical part of the bone, and is 
nearly five feet long. The teeth are nearly seven inches 
long, and four broad : they are found white, and fast in 



NEW YORK. 135 

the jaw s without appearance of decay. The holes in the 
skull, where the nostrils appear to have been, measure 
eight inches in diameter. 

Eioht similar skeletons have been discovered within 

o 

eight or ten miles of this point, and some of them were 
fifteen or twenty feet below the surface of the earth. 

Some bones of these animals were found in 1782, 
three miles south of Ward's Bridge, in Montgomery ; 
another, one mile east of this bridge ; another, three 
miles east ; another, seven miles north-east ; another, 
seven miles east ; another, five miles westwardly ; and 
another, ten miles north, in Shawangunk. Similar re- 
mains were found in digging the Delaware and Hudson 
Canal, in a peat-bog between Red Bridge and Wurtz- 
borough, in Sullivan County. Fossil bones of the mas- 
todon and elephant have been found in other parts of 
Orange County. 

These facts are gathered from a paper by Sylvanus 
Miller, published in the "Medical Repository," New 
York, 1801. Mr. Miller in a letter to De Witt Clinton 
in October, 1814, narrated some of them, and mentioned 
the additional circumstance, that, in some cases, consid- 
erable locks and tufts of hair were found with the skele- 
tons. It was of a dunnish-brown color, from one and a 
half to seven inches in length, and retained its natural 
appearance until exposed for some time to the air, when 
it gradually mouldered away into a kind of impalpable 
dust. 

Mention is made of the skeleton of a mastodon found 
in Genesee, in marl, below a bed of peat. 

In September, 1866, the jaw-bones of a mastodon 
were discovered in a peat-bed, some thirty feet below 
the surface, at Cohoes. The length of each jaw-bone is 
thirty-two inches ; the breadth across the jaw, at the 



136 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

broadest point, twenty inches, and the extreme depth 
about twelve inches. On one side is a tooth four inches 
in length and two and a half in width, and on the other 
side two teeth, one of which is six and a half inches 
long, the other four, and both uniform in width and 
shape with the tooth opposite. 

On the side of the single tooth there is no cavity to 
indicate that any other ever existed, and it is evident 
that the animal died in possession of all the dental con- 
veniences that nature ever gave him. The front of the 
jaw is comparatively light, showing that the creature 
was not given to carnivorous diet, but subsisted chiefly 
on herbs. 

About a month later, most of the remaining bones of 
the skeleton were discovered and exhumed. They lay 
at a depth of eighty-five feet below the surface, and con- 
sisted of the back -bone, a number of the ribs, the hip- 
bones, shoulder-blades, and bones of the hind legs, two 
tusks, the upper jaw, and cranium. 

The tusks were each nearly six feet long, and about 
nine inches in diameter. One of them, upon exposure 
to the air, crumbled to pieces like clay, resembling that 
substance in appearance and texture. The ribs, of 
which fourteen were found, are about four feet long, the 
largest being four feet nine inches. The upper jaw- 
bone is four feet nine inches long from the extremity of 
the mouth to the cranium ; across the forehead meas- 
ures about three feet. So heavy is the skull that it was 
with difficulty that four laborers could move it. The 
sockets in which originally were located the eyes of the 
monster, are almost large enough to admit the head of 
a man. The hip-bone is five feet long, and weighs one 
hundred pounds : the shoulder-blades measure two feet 
nine inches, and weigh about fifty pounds each ; the bone 



NEW YORK. 137 

of the leg, at the knee-joint, measures thirteen inches in 
diameter ; the vertebrae of the back-bone are eight inches 
in diameter. The other fragments found are in harmo- 
nious proportion to those already mentioned. 

The bones have been carefully prepared, the missing 
parts ingeniously replaced with wood, and the whole set 
up and united by mearis of wires, and placed in the State 
Geological Museum at Albany. 

We understand that in the same peat-bed was like- 
wise discovered an ostrich egg, at about thirty feet 
below the surface. 

The peat was covered with a slate rock, which was 
cut through in digging foundations for a mill. On each 

O DO O 

side of the peat-bed are perpendicular rocks, in which 
are large semicircular cavities, evidently worn by the 
action of water, and showing that a stream once flowed 
over the spot. 

On Long Island, throughout its entire length, there 
are numerous peat-beds, some of them of great extent, 
most of them of rather unusual depth, if we are rightly 
informed, say from ten to forty feet ; and nearly all of 
them are believed to be of quality adapted to make, 
when properly manufactured, good fuel. 

Within the last two years, extensive explorations, 
and, in some cases, very large purchases of peat-lands 
have been made, some for actual use and development, 
and others unquestionably for speculative purposes ; 
and so clearly manifest is it that stores of solid wealth 
are to be found in these hitherto waste-places, that sev- 
eral of the leading railroad and manufacturing interests, 
as well as numerous private parties, are committed to 
the development of this fuel question, and are preparing 
for extensive operations the present year. 

New York, in the length and breadth of the State, 



138 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

may be said to be wide awake on the subject of peat- 
fuel. Large quantities will be manufactured the pres- 
ent year ; and the day cannot be far distant when her 
peat-beds will be added, as no inconsiderable item, to 
the list of her already abundant resources of wealth. 

New Jersey. 

The deposits of peat in this State are numerous and 
rich, and a lively interest is manifested in utilizing them. 
It is well known that numerous shell marl-beds or pits 
are exclusively and profitably worked for fertilizing pur- 
poses. These marl-beds are usually found to rest upon 
a bed of clay, sand, or gravel, and are succeeded by 
peat or muck, the depth of the peaty deposits varying, 
according to the statements we have seen, from three to 
twenty feet. Peat, varying in quality for purposes of 
fuel, is found in Montague, H arris ville, Belleville, 
Hohokus, Sandiston, Vernon, and other localities. 

It will be interesting in this connection to note some- 
thing of the cedar-swamps, which are a remarkable 
feature of Southern New Jersey. They are common in 
all the counties south of Momnouth ; but probably the 
most extensive are in Cape May, and the adjoining parts 
of Cumberland and Atlantic Counties. The Cedar- 
Swamp Creek, which runs into Tuckahoe River, and 
Dennis Creek, which runs into Delaware Bay, head in 
the same swamp ; and the whole length of the two 
streams — a distance of seventeen miles — is one contin- 
uous cedar-swamp. The wood is the white cedar. It 
grows on peat, and its roots run near the surface. In 
the present growth of standing timber, scarcely any 
trees are to be found more than one hundred years old ; 
but these rest upon a formation containing we know not 



NEW JERSEY. 139 

how many generations of trees which have lived and 
fallen before them. Large stumps are frequently found 
standing directly on other large logs, and with their roots 
growing all around them, and then other logs still under 
these ; so that one soon becomes perplexed in trying to 
count back to the time when the lower ones were growing. 

Dr. Beesley, of Dennisville, some years since, com- 
municated to the newspapers an article on the age of 
these cedar-swamps, which was copied by Professor 
Charles Lyell, in his "Travels in the United States ; " 
in which Dr. Beesley says that he " counted 1080 rings 
of annual growth between the centre and outside of a 
large stump, six feet in diameter ; and under it lay a 
prostrate tree, which had fallen and been buried before 
the tree, to which the stump belonged, first sprouted. 
This lower trunk was five hundred years old : so that 
upward of fifteen centuries were thus determined, be- 
yond the shadow of a doubt, as the age of one small 
portion of a bog, the depth of which is as yet unknown." 

Mr. Charles Ludlam counted seven hundred rings" of 
annual growth in an old tree, which was living when 
cut down. The trees stand very thick upon the ground, 
and grow rapidly at first; but as they increase in size, 
and crowd each other, the tops become thin, and the 
annual growth exceedingly small. The rings near the 
centre of a large cedar log are often almost an eighth of 
an inch in thickness, while those near the bark are not 
thicker than paper. The soil in which these trees grow 
is a rich black peat, composed of vegetable matter, 
which, when dry, will burn, leaving not more than three 
or four per cent, of an ash almost insoluble in acids, and 
without the slightest alkaline taste. This peat is of va- 
rious depths, from two or three up to twenty feet or 
more ; and the trees which grow on it have their roots 



140 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

extending through it in every direction near the surface, 
but not penetrating to the solid ground. When this 
soil is opened to the sun and rains, it decays rapidly ; 
but when covered with a growth of trees, and so shaded 
that the sun does not penetrate to the ground, it increases 
rapidly, from the annual fall of leaves, and from the 
twigs and small trees which die and fall. Trees are 
found buried in this peaty earth, at all depths, quite 
down to solid ground. The buried logs are gener- 
ally quite sound : the bark on the under side of many 
of them is still fresh in appearance. The color of the 
wood is preserved, and its buoyancy retained. When 
they are raised, and floated in water, it is observed that 
the side which was down in the swamp is uppermost. 
These logs are so abundant in some parts of the swamp, 
and in the salt marshes bordering on them, that a large 
number of men are constantly occupied in raising and 
splitting them into rails and shingles. Our authority 
states that in Mr. Ludlam's swamp this business was 
commenced fifty years ago, and has been carried on 
every year since ; the annual product sent from Den- 
nisville alone, averaging, for a number of years, not 
far from 200,000 rails, worth $8 to $10 per hundred, 
and 600,000 shingles, worth $13 to $15 per thousand. 
The size of the logs raised is generally from one and a 
half to three feet in diameter, though four feet is not 
uncommon ; and they have been taken out five, six, and 
even seven feet in diameter. In searching for logs, the 
workman uses an iron rod, which he thrusts into the 
mud until it strikes one ; then, by repeated trials, he 
judges of its direction, size, and length : the stumps, 
roots, and earth are removed from over it ; it is loosened 
by means of levers, and soon rises, and floats in the 
water which has accumulated in the excavation. 



pennsylvania. 141 

Pennsylvania. 

Of peat in Pennsylvania, the great coal-bearing sec- 
tion of this country, we shall hardly be expected to say 
much ; but some remarks contained in the Geological 
Report of that State, published in 1858, upon the analo- 
gies of origin and structure of peat and coal, are of so 
much interest, that we shall make brief extracts. 

" Peat-bogs are nothing but beds of coal, not entirely 
ripe or burned out. We have to mention some very 
interesting and striking analogies, such as the presence 
of bitumen in both formations. It has been asserted 
that bitumen could not proceed from plants, but it is 
everywhere obtained by the distillation of peat. 

N We would show the identity of the geographical dis- 
tribution of both formations, though it has been long 
asserted that the peat formation belongs to a cold cli- 
mate, and the coal to a warm one ; also the affinity of 
forms in their plants, — forms particularly adapted, it 
seems, to the absorption of the vapors, and the transfor- 
mation of carbonic acid in woody matter ; and show the 
large amount of wood in the plants of our peat-bogs, 
even in the mosses {sphagna), which, though very 
fragile, soft, and thread-like plants, have a larger pro- 
portion of woody matter than the hardest of trees. 

K The analogy of formation being established, we do 
not see any reason to theorize about the general flora 
of the period of the coal formation. 

" Our peat-bogs have more than seventy species of 
mosses, five or six species of lycopodiaceai, and as 
many species of ferns, eighteen or twenty species of 
palm-trees, reeds, and phanerogamous monocotyledo- 
nous plants ; and our peat-bogs are now essentially a 
compound of such plants, sedges, grasses, reeds, &c. 



142 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

The trees that are now living on these bogs — viz., the 
pines, birches, &c. — probably take the places of the 
large series of palm and fern trees of the marshes of 
the Old World." 

After making the above quotation from a French 
author, the report continues : — 

"The above was written ten years ago: since then, 
the palaeontology of the plants has made very great 
progress, and a great many new species have been dis- 
covered. Nevertheless, this analogy in the vegetation 
of both formations — the coal and the peat — has be- 
come more and more evident. 

"In the peat-bogs of North America, ordinarily 
named cedar-swamps, there are, first, about twenty 
species of mosses of which the growth directly contrib- 
utes to the formation of the peat." They are enu- 
merated. 

" Of these species, one only is peculiar as an Ameri- 
can plant; all the others, without exception, have the 
same plan, the same destination, and are found in the 
same abundance, as in the peat-bogs of Europe. There 
are, second, many other species of mosses which are 
growing only on the peat, but which do not claim a 
large share in the combustible matter. 

"The sedges and grasses are distributed, also, in the 
same proportion. 

" The trees have some species which cannot be com- 
pared ; but a great many of them, the birches and 
alders, are nearly alike. 

" The type of the flora of the peat-bogs is everywhere 
the same, and is susceptible of proof, as well from our 
explorations in the great bogs of Southern Virginia as 
from the observations of travellers in the Australian 
hemisphere. 



PENNSYLVANIA. 143 

N It lias been long asserted that the peat-bog forma- 
tion belongs particularly to cold climates, and that the 
preservation of the woody matter is essentially due to 
low temperature. Our researches in Europe on this 
subject have already proved that this is not the case, 
and that the area of the peat-bogs occupies exactly the 
same latitudes as that of the oldest coal formations. 
And since we have been enabled to pursue the same 
explorations in America, we have found on this conti- 
nent exactly the same distribution ; for in this country 
the peat-bogs are found from far above the northern 
shores of Lake Superior, as high as 60° of latitude, to 
the Great Dismal Swamp in South Virginia, 35°, exact- 
ly in the same latitudes as are occupied by the great 
coal basins of America. We have made on the same 
subject very long researches. 

"But how is it possible to account for the vegetation, 
in our latitude, of those immense trunks of trees, per- 
haps of fern-trees, to which we find an affinity only in 
the tropical regions, if we do not admit of a great 
change of temperature? 

"In the peat-bogs of northern countries, — of Den- 
mark, Sweden, and Switzerland, — we find sometimes, 
heaped in very thick strata, much larger trunks of trees 
than those which have been found in the coal. 

"The following is a description, given in 1846, of a 
peat-bog which we visited, near Waldsmarslund, thirty 
miles above Copenhagen : ? These deposits of wood are 
a true forest heaped upon another, and buried in the 
peat, which in the marshes of Denmark are found every- 
where with alternating beds of the same species of trees. 
At the bottom , upon a bed of peat from four to six feet 
thick, are pine-trees, lying flat, nearly always in the 
same direction as the inclination of the basin ; viz., the 



144 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

roots against the borders. These pine-trees are ordi- 
narily from six to ten inches in diameter : their slightest 
branches are preserved, and they are embedded in a 
mass of their own leaves, cones, mushrooms, &c, of 
which the form is not at all altered. Upon these pines 
is a bed of black peat, from five to six feet thick, over- 
laid by a forest of prostrate white birches. Upon the 
birches there is again six feet of less decomposed peat, 
covered with enormous trunks of oaks, which have no 
less than three feet of diameter, and of which the wood 
is so well preserved that it is sawed on the place, and 
used for building material. The peat in which these 
trees are buried does not preserve any trace of the leaves 
of these oaks, but only some acorns. It is evident, 
nevertheless, that they have grown on the place where 
they are found, being preserved in their integrity, with 
their smallest branches and their bark. These trees are 
covered by from six to eight feet of peat, in which or 
upon which is found sometimes a fourth forest of trees, 
and this time of beech-trees, the same trees that now 
form the forest around.' 

" The size of the trunks buried in the peat-bogs is, 
as is easily seen from the above description, in favor 
of our present formations. In the Dismal Swamp of 
Virginia, we have seen, in the peat, trunks of magnolia 
measuring more than one hundred feet, without great 
diminution in their diameter. The trees of the coal 
which are ordinarily ascribed to a genus of plants like 
the ferns, and so to fern-trees, were not true ferns, but a 
peculiar species of plants, of which we have no living 
representatives, and of which the nearest relatives are 
the lycopodiaceaj, a genus of plants of which the I«*rgost 
species known are living in the peat-bogs and the forests 
of our northern hemisphere. 



PENNSYLVANIA. 145 

" Our human race is young, but the world lived long 
before it. Truly, Nature has prepared our home. It 
has heaped, for the future welfare of our race, those 
inexhaustible beds of combustibles that afford us so 
much comfort ; but it has done this without any miracle, 
without any of those sudden transitions which we are so 
prone to discover for the satisfaction of our own pride. 
This coal formation " (and the same is equally true of 
peat) "is an admirable one, and we can look to it only 
with wonder, and with faith in an overruling Director ; 
for this heaping of combustible matter was by itself 
nothing but a useless proceeding. The bed to put it in 
was to be prepared, a long time in advance, by a thick 
layer of clay, to prevent the egress and the dispersion 
of the bitumen after its separation from the woody mat- 
ter. It required, also, an impermeable covering to 
prevent too strong an action of the oxygen, and the 
mingling of sand and other strange matters, which 
would have entirely changed its combustible property. 
This, as well as the formation of iron, which is also 
ordinarily in progress with the formation of the peat- 
bogs, has been obtained by the simplest laws and the 
slow progress of Nature. 

" This proceeding does not come to its end without a 
great many changes. 

K We have seen some beautiful illustrations of these 
changes in Germany and Denmark. Near Leipsic 
there is a bed of lignite, formed of large trunks heaped 
about fifteen feet thick. The matter is entirely soft, 
and all the trunks flattened, measuring in one direction 
scarcely half the diameter they have crosswise. It is 
also entirely black, and yields an excellent fuel. It is 
extracted with shovels, like peat, after its surface has 
10 



146 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

been laid bare from twenty feet of sand and gravel 
lying upon it. 

" In Denmark, about twenty miles below Copenhagen, 
near the sea-shore, there is an extensive plain, covered 
with the finest grass, and affording excellent pasturage 
to large herds of cattle. By digging there, they find, 
under one foot of humus, a bed of peat, entirely com- 
posed of bark of birches. This bark is heaped six feet 
thick, and closely packed and flattened. It is cut out 
and dried in long rolls, entirely void of earthy matter. 
The woody matter, nearly fluid, or transformed into a 
very soft yellow mass, is at the bottom of these beds, 
and is taken out of the excavations with buckets, spread 
on layers of straw, through which the water percolates, 
and, when thickened, it is beaten hard, dried, and burnt 
like coal." 

Virginia. 

The peat interest of this State may be said to centre 
in the Great Dismal Swamp, which, it is ascertained, 
contains some of the most extensive and superior de- 
posits of peat of which we have any knowledge in this 
country. 

The Virginia Condensed Peat Company and the Great 
Dismal Swamp Peat Company have already taken the 
initiatory steps, and we hear of other companies and 
individuals who are operating with a view to the devel- 
opment of this immense fuel region. The last-named 
company, in then published statement, say, — 

" The peat of the Dismal Swamp has been the growth 
of uncounted ages. Recent geological investigations 
have established the fact, that 'the Bare Garden,' which 
is the richest and best portion of this enormous peat- 
field, was once covered by a gigantic forest of resinous 



VIRGINIA. 147 

r 

woods, principally the gum-tree, cypress, juniper, and 
pitch-pine, which flourished in primeval luxuriance. 
AY hen these forests were prostrated by convulsions, or 
the slow process of decay, they were decomposed and 
covered by mosses and grasses, which accumulated for 
many centuries, until, by gradual chemical changes, 
the whole became one vast homogeneous mass of perfect 
peat, extending to undiscovered depths, and richer in 
calorific ingredients than almost any other peat hitherto 
discovered." 

Samples of these peats were furnished to Professors 
Johnson and Silliman, of Yale College, for examination 
and analysis, and their reports upon them are as fol- 
lows : — 

" Sheffield Scientific School of Yale College, 
" New Haven, Conn.', November 27, 1866." 

" Gentlemen-: 

M I have examined the two samples of peat sent by 
you as coming from the Great Dismal Swamp. These 
samples, brought to perfect dryness, gave, — 

Surface Peat. At 4 ft. depth. 

Volatile matter 62.56 65.74 

Coke (ash-free) 31.21 31.81 

Ash 6.23 2.45 



100.00 100.00 

" Calculated with the usual content of water (twenty 
per cent.) occurring in air-dry peat-fuel, we have, — 

Surface Teat. At 4 ft. depth. 

Water 20.00 20.00 

Volatile matter 50.05 52.59 

Coke (ash-free) 24.97 25.44 

Ash 4.98 1.97 



100.00 100.00 



148 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

" Both of these samples are of excellent quality. The 
sample taken from a depth of four feet, especially, is 
remarkably free from ash, which adapts it for gas- 
making, metallurgical purposes, &c. For iron smelting 
and working, this peat, properly condensed, would an- 
swer admirably. 

"Very truly yours, &c, 

"Samuel W. Johnson, 

"Professor of Agricultural and Analytical Chemistry, Yale College.'''' 

" Gentlemen : 

" My examination of the specimen of peat from the 
Dismal Swamp, which you placed in my hands, has 
yielded the following results : — 

"As received, the peat appears like a thick mud, dark 
brown in color, impalpable in 'fineness, crossed here and 
there with root fibrils, and remarkably uniform. 

" Annexed are the results of its analysis : — 

III. IV. 

10.00 





I. 


II. 


Water . . . 


78.89 


20.22 


Volatile matter . 


13.84 


52.31 


Charcoal 


6.49 


24.52 


Ash ... . 


.78 


2.95 



65.53 58.08 
30.82 28.59 
•3.65 3.33 



100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 

"No. I. is the wet peat, as received; II., the same, 
after drying for six months in my laboratory ; HI. , the 
perfectly dry peat ; and IV., another portion, calculated 
with ten per cent, of water. 

" From these figures it is at once evident that this peat 
has an excellent composition. The large amount of 
combustible matter it contains, and the correspondingly 
small proportion of ash , greatly enhance its value as a fuel. 
Moreover, the percentage of coke which it yields is so 



VIRGINIA. 149 

considerable as to prove that its conversion into charcoal 
for use in the manufacture of iron, for example, may be 
made remunerative ; and especially so for the above 
purpose, since an analysis of the ash failed to show the 
presence of any injurious substances. 

" I regard the physical and chemical examination to 
which I have subjected your peat as highly satisfactory. 
And I do not doubt that, by the use of the approved 
modes of preparation which you are employing, you 
will be able to place in the market an exceedingly useful 
and merchantable fuel. 

"Yours respectfully, 

"B. SlLLIMAN. 
11 Yale College Laboratory, 
New Haven, Jan. 1, 1867." 

We have ourselves had samples of this same peat, 
and applied to them the practical tests which every pur- 
chaser of fuel applies to wood or coal, in order to satisfy 
himself of its real value, or, in other words, how much 
money he is willing to pay for it. 

The scientific analyses above reported confirm our 
practical tests, and we think there can be no doubt 
that the extensive deposits of peat in the Great Dis- 
mal Swamp are among the purest and best in this 
country. 

An officer who served during the late war, and was 
for a considerable time stationed in this region, and 
improved his opportunities for observation, writes, — 

"There can be little doubt that the Great Dismal 
Swamp was once a vast fresh-water lake, below the 
level of the neighboring lands, fed by the springs and 
rills therefrom. Gradually the mosses and dense sedges 
vigorously growing in the rich soil of its quiet margin 
encroached on all sides, increasing in height and firm- 



150 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

ness, — fed by drenching rains and frequent fogs, until 
they have nearly filled the huge basin, — and crowding 
the waters inward and upward to an elevation of twelve 
feet above the level of the lands at the verge of the 
swamp, hold Lake Drummond compressed to one tenth 
its original size, and imprisoned in forest and bog. 

"The broad canal built by the U. S. government 
through the eastern part of the swamp is fed by a race- 
way from the lake ; and the lake is so much higher 
than the canal, and the middle of the canal so much 
higher than the ends at the edge of the swamp, that the 
water flows from the lake into the canal, and each way 
into the Elizabeth and Pasquotank Rivers. 

" The graphic delineation of Porte Crayon, and the 
startling romance of Mrs. Stowe, alike fail to convey 
an adequate conception of the weird wildness of this 
unique locality. Equally impossible is it to estimate 
and describe the exhaustless wealth of this mysterious 
spot, in the choicest timber and in the richest and purest 
of American peat. 

" In America the dryness of the air, the rareness of 
fogs, and the heat of summer, render the climate less 
favorable than that of Europe for the normal production 
of peat by the steady growth of vegetation. 

" On the cool and humid coast of Labrador, in foggy 
Nova Scotia and Newfoundland,' and in the Great Dis- 
mal Swamp of South Virginia, with abundant moisture 
from its lake, and the dense vapors from the adjacent 
ocean, peat formations bear close resemblance to the 
huge bogs of Ireland and Germany. 

" Nature seems to have provided fuel where it is most 
wanted. Below 35° of latitude little fuel is needed, 
and wood grows with great rapidity ; above 60° few 
live to need fuel. ^Yhether or not this be the quiet 



VIRGINIA. 151 

reasoning of busy Nature, or her divine Author, certain 
it is that above the limit named the cold interferes with 
the requisite growth and decomposition of the proper 
vegetation, while below that limit the heat and dryness 
of the air largely absorb moisture, and cause a decompo- 
sition too rapid for the formation of peat. The Great 
Dismal Swamp is substantially the southern limit of peat 
in this country. It may well be doubted whether peat 
of the finest quality would have been formed there had 
not the vast size of the swamp, the abundant water in 
its large lake, and the added moisture of the dense and 
frequent fogs from the adjacent ocean more than neu- 
tralized the effect which the heat of the climate and the 
dryness of the air would have produced upon a smaller 
inland swamp. 

"The water of the Great Dismal Swamp, though of 
a dark reddish color, is clear and fit for all domestic pur- 
poses. I have often used it to quench my thirst, in 
preference to the water of the springs or wells of that 
vicinity. Indeed, the people near the swamp believe it 
to possess medicinal qualities, and declare that those 
who steadily use it will not be troubled with ague or 
the bilious disorders incident to summer in that region. 

"I have heard the inhabitants of the neighborhood 
repeatedly affirm that to visit the swamp and partake 
of the waters beneath the dense shade of its luxuriant 
magnolias, lofty junipers, and white cedars, was as in- 
vigorating as a trip to the Sulphur Springs or the heal- 
ing waters of Saratoga. We smile, as if the idea was 
absurd ; but certain it is, that the juniper water, as it is 
called, possesses as stringent qualities, at least, — and 
the experience of the army abundantly proves that it is 
much more wholesome to those not acclimated, — than 
the waters of various villarious properties, drawn from 



152 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

the wells of that torpid locality. To us the huge, 
strange swamp itself was much less dismal and unpleas- 
ant than the flat, half-tilled border land of our encamp- 
ment." 

From a letter received from the superintendent of the 
Virginia Condensed Peat Company, we make the fol- 
lowing extracts : — 

"The juniper, cypress, gum, poplar, and other val- 
uable woods, so common in this swamp, have long been 
a source of trade ; from which cause parts of the swamp 
are wholly or nearly cleared of its heavy growth. 
Extensive fires, which have occurred more or less 
every year, have served also to clear the way for peat 
operations. 

" The peat is of the first quality, as proved by careful 
analysis. It varies in depth from four feet to forty or 
fifty feet. In the locality occupied by our company it 
is ten feet deep and upwards. 

"The facilities for getting the peat to market are 
good. The Dismal Swamp Canal, which runs through, 
not exactly the centre, but the eastern part of it, af- 
fords a water communication. Vessels of light draught 
may come alongside the works, located on the banks, 
take in the peat, and sail for any port they please , north 
or south. 

"Many get the idea from the name of the swamp, " dis- 
mal," that it is a gloomy and unhealthy place. It is not 
so. It is more pleasant and beautiful to the eye than 
the low, sandy, level plains that border upon it, and far 
more healthy. Negroes have been known to live for 
years in the swamp, enjoying excellent health and 
strength. r Lumbermen,' says Mrs. Stowe, in her thrill- 
ing romance of the Great Dismal Swamp, { who spend 
great portions of the year in it, cutting shingles and 



VIRGINIA. 153 

staves, testify to the general salubrity of the air and 
water. The opinion prevails among them that the quan- 
tity of pine and other resinous trees that grow there im- 
part a balsamic property to the water, and impregnate 
the air with a healthy resinous fragrance, which causes 
it to be an exception to the usual rule of the unhealthi- 
ness of swampy land.' 

"It is even so. Such is the universal belief of the in- 
habitants, both black and white, who live in the vicinity 
of the swamp. The water is clear as crystal, though of 
a reddish color, caused by the abundant growth of the 
tree which gives it its name, f Juniper water;' it is 
sweet and healthy, and used for all culinary purposes. 
In no part of this vast swamp is stagnant water to be 
found. Like the water in all perfect peat-bogs, it is 
pure and free from malaria. 

"In digging the peat«t might naturally be supposed, 
owing to the woody growth of the swamp, that the roots 
would be a great hinderance. These roots are near the 
surface, and are no very serious detriment. At the 
depth of two or three feet, you are free from them ; 
then the peat comes pure, of the consistency of butter or 
lard, and unlike most of the more northern peat, it con- 
tains no fibrous roots. From our limited experience 
thus far, we perceive no material difference in the qual- 
ity of the peat, whether lying near the surface or at a 
greater depth. 

"Owing to the situation of the swamp, at the southern 
limit of the peat region, the season for manufacturing it 
comprises nearly the whole year." 

Another correspondent, an officer, who likewise served 
in this region for several months, and was so much im- 
pressed with the value and importance of it, that he has 



154 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

since revisited it, and devoted a good deal of time to 
explorations and investigations, writes as follows : — 

" TTith the exception of a single locality in Virginia, 
I have been unable to learn of any deposits in the South- 
ern States. 

" Decomposition of vegetable matter is so rapid in all 
warm climates as to prevent the formation of peat. In 
this case, however, a combination of natural causes pro- 
duces a climate similar in most respects to that of Ireland, 
and consequently peat is formed there equal in quality to 
the finest varieties of the Irish bogs. • 

" This deposit is situated a few miles from Norfolk, 
on the line of the Dismal Swamp Canal, in the vicinity 
of Lake Drummond. 

"Heretofore these swamp lands have been valued 
only for their timber ; and for at least a century the 
cypress and juniper logs, dug fcom beneath the f black 
bog ' (as the negroes call it) , have constituted quite an 
important article of commerce. 

" It is only within two years that the discovery has 
been made that the peculiar preservative properties of 
this 'bog' were identical with those of the Irish swamps, 
and that this vast waste of saturated, spongy substance 
contained all the elements of a most valuable fuel. So 
soon as it became known, gentlemen from New York 
and Baltimore secured all the available tracts, and are 
now preparing to work them. These tracts comprise in 
the aggregate about fifteen thousand acres. 

" As the depth of this deposit is in $o case less than 
six feet, and in many places from forty to sixty feet, it 
will be readily seen that Nature has established here an 
immense depot for the supply of fuel to all the seaboard 
cities. As the entire transportation will be by water, 



VIRGINIA. 155 

the expenses of marketing the fuel will be materially 
less than though land carriage were necessary. 

" Samples of this peat in a crude state have been ana- 
lyzed by distinguished chemists, and I understand that 
you have their reports. 

"From them, it will be seen that the Dismal Swamp 
peat is not only a valuable fuel, but that from its unu- 
sual purity it is especially adapted to the manufacture 
of illuminating gas, and for all the purposes of metallurgy . 

"It would not be surprising, should the capitalists 
now engaged in developing the rich deposits of gold and 
copper in North Carolina and Virginia find that the peat 
of the Great Dismal Swamp was the best and most eco- 
nomical fuel they could employ for the smelting and de- 
sulphurizing of their ores. 

" One peculiarity of this swamp is its entire freedom 
from malaria. While on the open lands surrounding 
it, ague and congestive fevers prevail, none has ever 
been known within it, although there are lumbermen 
now at work who have spent fifty years among its re- 
cesses. During the prevalence of yellow fever in Nor- 
folk, the swamp proved a safe retreat for hundreds of 
people. 

" There is no doubt but that this salubrity of climate 
is due in a great degree to the balsamic nature of the 
principal trees with which this vast area was once en- 
tirely covered. 

" The water of the lake and swamp is of the color of 
sherry, and, although perfectly quiescent, it never stag- 
nates, but remains perfectly pure and sweet. 

" For a great many years the naval authorities at 
Gosport have been in the practice of filling the water- 
tanks of all vessels bound on long voyages with this 
juniper water, and sailors have never known it to spoil." 



156 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

The concurrent testimony, from all these sources, in 
regard to the " sweet water " of this swamp, is of inter- 
est as bearing upon the question of the antiseptic prop- 
erties of peat, which will be more fully referred to in 
succeeding pages. 

We have credible information of a barrel of this water 
which has been in the possession of a gentleman for more 
than thirty years, which is apparently as sweet and 
clear now as when first taken from the swamp. 

Ohio. 

We have, at present, but very little information re- 
lating to the deposits of peat in this State ; have learned 
of but few, and those mostly on the lake shore. We 
are seeking information from this section, aud hope to 
be able to present, in a subsequent edition, some de- 
tailed statements. 

Michigan. 

In a letter recently received from Professor A. Win- 
chell, of the University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, he 
says, — 

" I have not been unobservant of your efforts for a few 
years back to introduce machinery that should enable 
us to utilize the vast deposits of peat existing in various 
parts of our country. I have anticipated that the time 
would arrive when the existing deposits of the lower 
peninsula of Michigan would come into requisition. 

" I am induced to think that the time has now arrived. 
Cord-wood commands, throughout the southern portion 
of the State, not less than five to eight dollars per cord ; 
and the coal which is worked at Jackson and Corruna 
and other points, though obtainable for three to four 



PEAT IN MICHIGAN. 157 

dollars per ton, is not of quality suitable for domestic 
use. In this state of things, we are introducing coal 
from Pennsylvania, — Scranton, Lackawana, and Le- 
high, — at twelve to thirteen dollars per ton delivered. 
This coal is cheaper than cord-wood; but its use in- 
volves an unreasonable expense, as long as we have, 
within the limits of every county of the State, a deposit 
of combustible matter sufficient in extent to supply the 
wants of the people for a long time, provided we have 
the means for effecting its inexpensive desiccation and 
preparation for use. 

" The peat-beds of the State were described in a gen- 
eral way in the Geological Reports made by Dr. Hough- 
ton and his assistants, thirty years ago. 

" Eleven years ago I published an account of them in 
the Michigan Farmer, then edited in Detroit. In 1860, 
I made further mention of them in my Reports on the 
progress of the Geological Survey ; and in January, 
1865, in an address before the Legislature, at Lansing 
(also published by the Legislature) , on the f Soils and 
subsoils of Michigan,' I again made reference to the 
subject. 

"In none of these documents, however, are our peat 
accumulations described in detail. The notices em- 
braced in the Geological Reports are general and hasty, 
such as would be suited to reports of progress only. 
No final Report has ever been made, and hence no op- 
portunity offered to record the numerous details of which 
observations have been taken. 

" The facts are, however, that few States in the Union 
afford so extensive accumulations, or so fine a quality 
of combustible muck and peat. 

" I cannot now specify many of these accumulations 
of peat, neither is it necessary. I know of very extensive 



158 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

beds in Washtenaw, Jackson, and Lenawee Counties. 
I have not made special explorations of many of these 
beds. There has been no occasion for it. 

" Whenever the time arrives for drawing upon these 
stores of fuel, local observations can be made, and meas- 
urements of depth and tests of quality undertaken. 

" You seem to incline to the opinion that the peat de- 
posits in Michigan are rather thin, and not of very good 
quality. In this* you are quite mistaken. The fact is, 
as I have already stated, our peat deposits are numer- 
ous, often from four to twenty feet deep, and of good 
quality. 

" I know of some peat-bogs of forty to one hundred 
acres in extent. In Ingham County is one of more than 
a thousand acres in extent ; another in Lapeer County. 
As nearly as I can recollect, a bog occurs in Washte- 
naw County, one or two hundred acres in extent ; 
another in the south part of Jackson County, fifty acres 
in extent. 

" I am unable to say what depth the peat attains in 
these particular places, but I know that in many other 
places it is ten or fifteen feet to the bottom." 

The Detroit Free Press, in a recent article, says, — 

" The discovery of immense beds of peat in Michigan, 
which are already being developed, and the fact that 
the article is now produced for commerce, is a matter of 
great importance to every housekeeper, as well as to the 
capitalist and manufacturer. 

" Specimens of crude and condensed peat have been 
forwarded to the Board of Trade in this city, for exhi- 
bition at their rooms, by Mr. Elisha Congdon, an enter- 
prising merchant and farmer of Chelsea, in this State. 
The bed from which the specimens were taken is situ- 
ated in Chelsea, Washtenaw County. It is what is 



INDIANA. 159 

known as a dry bog, containing about one huudred 
acres, with an average depth of ten or twelve feet at 
least. Soundings have been made of some parts of it, 
giving over twenty feet, without reaching the bottom of 
the bed. 

"Professor Douglas, of the Michigan State University, 
after a thorough analysis, pronounced it a very superior 
article, yielding only three and two tenths per cent, 
of ash. 

" These beds of peat are almost inexhaustible, and be- 
ing found in the dry bogs, can readily be worked ; and the 
quality of the material having been fully tested, we may 
expect soon to have our markets supplied with it as a 
regular article of traffic. 

" Mr. Congdon is now erecting a building in which he 
will place one of the Leavitt peat machines, and expects 
to prepare for market, during the coming spring, fifteen 
to twenty tons per day of the concentrated peat. 

" To what extent this traffic may reach is beyond cal- 
culation ; for it is believed that throughout the State 
there are hundreds of peat-beds which a proper system 
of drainage will develop, and thus furnish an abundant 
supply of fuel, when the productions of our forests will 
have become curtailed to such an extent, and its cost as 
fuel so enhanced, as to prohibit its use for that purpose. 

" We hope that the owners of the numerous peat- 
marshes in the county will profit by the example of Mr. 
Congdon." 

Indiana. 

It is well known that there exist, in various parts of 
the State, immense tracts of swamp-lands ; and that 
during the past few years, large portions of these have, 
by a systematic method of draining, been reclaimed for 



160 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

cultivation, and have proved very valuable for that 
purpose. 

Some thousands of acres of these lands, it is now re- 
ported, are found to be deposits of peat, of good quality 
for fuel, and operations on a limited scale for manufac- 
turing it have been commenced at one or two points 
during the past season. 

We have seen it stated that along both sides of the 
Kankakee River, extending from South Bend to the 
Illinois line, is a peat-bog of more than sixty miles in 
length, with an average width of three miles. In some 
places it is known to be over forty feet deep ; but even 
though it average only one half or even one quarter of 
this depth, the aggregate amount of fuel it contains, it 
must be admitted, is beyond comprehension. 

It is, we understand, quite practicable to drain this 
entire marsh to the depth of ten or fifteen feet, at small 
expense . 

South of the Kankakee, the peat-bogs between there 
and the Wabash are simply immense, and they are 
traversed by three railroads. 

Near the head of Lake Michigan, within ten to fifty 
miles of Chicago, there is peat-fuel enough to supply 
that city, if it lives to the age of Jerusalem. The 
marsh along the Calamie River will measure at least 
thirty miles, averaging a mile wide, and is of unknown 
depth, and undoubtedly good peat. 

There would seem to be no good reason why these 
rich and extensive deposits should not be improved for 
fuel, to the pecuniary profit of individuals and greatly 
to the advantage of M the people." 



ILLINOIS. 161 



Illinois. 



In the northerly part of this State are valuable de- 
posits, some of them quite extensive ; but we are not, 
at present, in possession of sufficient reliable data to 
make mention of them in detail. 

From a lengthy and somewhat elaborate article upon 
the subject of " Cheap Fuel " in a recent issue of the 
Chicago Times, we make the following quotations, 
which appear to be pertinent in this connection, and 
which, although relating more particularly to the in- 
terests of the city of Chicago, are perhaps equally ap- 
plicable to all that region : — 

" The supply of coal from the vast beds which un- 
derlie so large a portion of Indiana, Illinois, and Mis- 
souri, have gone far to make up for the deficiency of 
wood in these districts. Yet, notwithstanding these 
supplies of coal, in many places fuel is both scarce and 
high. The cost of mining at most of the Illinois mines 
is, at the present time, not less than $3.50 per ton, 
while at the mines nearer Chicago, the price is much 
greater. When we add to this price the cost of trans- 
portation and the profits of dealers, it will be found that 
coal becomes a costly fuel to all who live at a distance 
from the mines. -The freight for one hundred miles on 
the cheapest route is $2 per ton, and a great part of the 
Illinois coal brought into Chicago, is taxed from $3 to 
$5 per ton for freight. 

"Illinois, however, furnishes but a fraction of the whole 
amount of coal consumed in Chicago. During the year 
ending March 31, 1865, we received 251,038 tons of 
coal by the lake, most of which was the product of 
Pennsylvania mines ; and but 66,725 tons from the 
Illinois mines. During the past season, the imports of 
11 



162 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

coal by the lakes increased to 288,771 tons. This coal 
is carried by railroad from the mines, some of them 200 
miles distant, to Lake Erie, and then shipped by water 
a thousand miles. It will be evident that the cost of 
this fuel is greatly enharfbed by the cost of transporta- 
tion. So it must always be. Unless such improve- 
ments are made in navigation and locomotion as to 
lessen the cost of transportaion 50 per cent, or more, 
fuel must be high, except in the vicinity of the place 
where it is produced. 

" These considerations make it important that all the 
sources of fuel in the west be fully investigated and 
developed. 

" Wood and coal have been long and well known by 
every one, and wherever found, their value is appreciat- 
ed ; but ignorance of the nature and value of peat as a 
fuel has prevented the development of the beds of this 
material, which, it seems, are found in many parts of 
Illinois, Indiana, and Wisconsin, and in some sections 
where there is no coal, and but very little wood. 

" This substance is found, on examination, to be com- 
posed of various mosses and aquatic plants, partially 
decomposed and solidified. It is, in fact, incipient coal, 
representing the first steps in the progressive changes 
which transform vegetable substances into mineral coal. 
Its ultimate elements are the same as those of wood and 
coal, namely, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. 
According to Sir Humphrey Davy, from 60 to 99 per 
cent, of the substance of dry peat is combustible, the 
remainder consisting of earthy matter which forms ashes. 

" Machinery has been invented by which the peat, as it 
comes from the bog, is compressed into hard and com- 
pact masses, resembling unburned brick in consistency, 
and not easily broken. This condensed peat is not only 



ILLINOIS. 163 

as easily transported as so much coal, but it is also s 
very superior fuel, burning freely in an open grate, or in 
a wood or coal stove, with intense heat, and being so 
compact in form as to present unusual advantages for 
making steam, especially in locomotive engines, and, 
indeed, for almost all manufacturing purposes. 

" For domestic purposes, it unites the cleanliness of 
wood with the heating advantages of coal, and for open 
fires it is charming. 

"For manufacturing purposes it has remarkable advan- 
tages ; for, being entirely free from sulphur, iron can be 
worked in it without injury. The extraordinary heating 
power of peat charcoal, together with its freedom from 
sulphur and other substances deleterious to metals, ren- 
ders it peculiarly adapted for smelting purposes, and for 
all manufactures of metals. 

"In some countries it is highly prized as a fuel for 
locomotives, and for making steam generally, for which 
its strong flame and freedom from clinker admirably 
qualify it. 

"In Northern Illinois, deposits have been discovered 
in various places ; the largest, so far as known, being 
in Whiteside County, near the Mississippi River. One 
of these bogs is said to be four miles in length, and one 
in breadth, and twelve feet deep. The value of these 
deposits, situated, as they are, where there is very little 
wood and. no coal, is almost beyond computation. 
Doubtless, peat may be found in many other parts of 
the State ; and it would be well if trials were made of 
the contents of all the swamps, which, in some sections, 
render useless a considerable portion of the surface. 

" Our farmers may find that these waste places, now 
producing nothing better than rushes and water-lilies, 
are the most valuable parts of their land. 



164 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

"Along Lake Michigan, both in Indiana and Illinois, 
beds of peat have been found, some of which are of ex- 
cellent quality, though where the deposits are very near 
the lake, the quality of the peat has been vitiated by the 
admixture of sand. 

" In view of the importance of the fuel question in the 
north-west, every effort should be made to discover and 
develop the beds of peat which are known to exist in 
many localities, and which probably may be found in 
many more. 

" The wood and coal consumed in the city of Chica- 
go, during the past year, have cost our citizens fully 
$5,000,000. 

" If the peat-beds of the the north-west are once fully 
developed, it is probable that the cost of fuel will be 
diminished at least one half, and thus $2,500,000 be 
saved to the city annually. Moreover, the superior 
qualities of peat and peat-charcoal for the manufacture 
of iron and the generation of steam will be sure to 
secure the attention of manufacturers, and, if we can 
be abundantly supplied with this material at cheap 
rates, Chicago will be sure to become a great manu- 
facturing, as well as a commercial city." 

Explorations are being made all through this region, 
and sharp eyes are watching for results ; for in no sec- 
tion of the country is there a more ready appreciation 
of the value of fuel, and wherever peat is found it will 
doubtless be turned to good account. 

Wisconsin. 

Throughout the valleys of this State, peat is very 
abundant ; and, in a district where vegetable and min- 
eral fuel is so scarce, it seems highly probable that it 



WISCONSIN. 165 

will, at sonic future day, be resorted to as an extremely 
valuable substitute for coal and wood. These valleys 
present a very peculiar character in one respect ; which 
is, in the singularly level planes which are maintained 
in their entire breadth. They appear as if they had 
once been filled to a uniform level, in the manner of a 
dam, from bank to bank, or like artificial reservoirs 
from which the waters have escaped. These level bot- 
toms consist of peat-heds to an unknown depth ; and 
small streams meander through them, having muddy 
bottoms, and frequently expanding into swamps. 

It would seem that these Wisconsin valleys have ac- 
quired this peculiar uniformity of plane surfaces from 
the depositions of earthy matter in the first instance, 
succeeded by the growth and decay of that class of 
coarse aquatic vegetables which prevail under such 
circumstances. 

Considerable interest was awakened in this subject 
some ten years ago : the matter was discussed, and 
efforts were made to utilize the peat for fuel ; but, from 
the fact that no machinery could be procured adapted 
for the purpose required, no practical results were real- 
ized. But now that the needful process of manufacture 
has been discovered, and machinery effectual for the 
purpose is to be had, the subject is again receiving the 
attention it deserves ; parties in various parts of the State 
are investigating it, and the manufacture of peat-fuel 
has already been commenced in aiew places. 

We have seen a report made in 1857 by Dr. A. A. 
Hayes, of Boston, State Assayer of Massachusetts, to 
some parties owning extensive peat-bogs near Madison, 
Wis., in which he says of the sample placed in his 
hands, "Its flaming quality is of a marked character. 
Its inflammable part has a high heating power, and 



166 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

burns freely and cleanly from the ash. Taking the 
fifty-nine parts of inflammable compounds as represent- 
ing the positive combustible matter of this peat, we have 
a caloric equivalent closely corresponding to that of 
oak-wood ; and I am led by my results to expect an 
equal heating-power from an equal weight of this peat, 
burned in comparison with coal." He adds, " Your 
peat has a marvellous power in producing good gas. 
It exceeds all common cannels, and, of course, is far 
above any bituminous coal, and can be worked with 
poor coal to make good gas. There are only two or 
three cannel coals known which afford so much illumi- 
nating material, placing this peat in the first class of 
gas materials." 

It is claimed that the most extensive beds of peat 
known to exist in the west are in Wisconsin. 

As this State has but little wood accessible to the fer- 
tile and well-settled counties, and no mines of coal, these 
deposits of fuel are of great importance, and may be 
of immense value when manufactures shall have been 
more generally introduced. 

From a number of articles upon this subject, which, 
during the past year, have appeared in the various news- 
papers of the State, we select one from the "Northern 
Farmer," published at Fond du Lac, from which to make 
a few extracts covering a good deal of ground. 

" We have been examining into the merits of peat as 
an article of fuel, and are convinced that it is destined 
to become one of the most important sources of wealth, 
as it is in some respects more valuable than coal. 

"It can be taken from its bed, and manufactured into 
fuel, at a much less expense than is required to obtain 
coal from the most favorably located coal-beds, without 
taking transportation into consideration. This country 



WISCONSIN. 1C7 

contains peat deposits of sufficient magnitude to supply 
all the wants of a densely-populated community for sev- 
eral generations ; so that our valuable timber, now being 
consumed for fuel, would be preserved for mechanical 
purposes. We hope that public attention will be aroused 
to this matter in time to save this wholesale destruction 
of our valuable oaks, maples, hickory, ironWood, and 
other varieties of timber. When these are all turned 
to ashes, necessity will compel us to look for a substi- 
tute for fuel : this will be found in peat ; but we doubt 
being able to find a substitute to supply our workshops 
with material that has been consumed to supply our 
growing population with heat during our long winters. 

"Our city alone requires 30,000 cords of wood annu- 
ally, and the demand constantly increasing. Old res- 
idents can see what were extensive forests, rapidly 
disappearing before the axe ; and, unless a check is 
put upon their wholesale destruction, they will soon be 
a thing of the past. 

"The ingenuity of man now steps forth, and appears 
in the form of numerous styles of machinery for prepar- 
ing the products of these heretofore apparently worth- 
less marsh-lands into valuable fuel deposits, each, owing 
to its ease of access, superior to a mine of coal. 

" We believe the mode of preparing consists in pul- 
verizing, pressing, and drying, which is done very rap- 
idly ; and in ten days' time it is an article of merchandise 
ready for use. Samples, that we have seen, appear as 
solid as Breckenridge coal, and will weigh nearly as 
much to the cord. 

" We should be glad to see some of the surplus money 
that has been invested in oil-wells pumped out and in- 
vested in peat-beds and machinery for preparing it." 



166 peat as an akticle of fuel. 

Iowa. 

The subject of peat is one of vast importance to the 
people of Iowa, and especially to those in the northern 
portion of the State, where the article is believed to 
exist in large quantities, on and near the head- waters 
of the Iowa and Des Moines. Dr. White, the State 
Geologist, we are glad to know, is devoting a good share 
of attention to this subject, among others ; and we doubt 
not his investigations will develop facts which will be 
highly beneficial to the people of the State. 

The great drawback to the settlement of a prairie 
State, like Iowa, where many miles often intervene with- 
out any timber at all, has been the want of fuel ; and 
that will continue to operate against the rapid settlement 
of the State, and, in fact, of all prairie country, until 
science shall discover a remedy. The artificial growth 
of timber has been resorted to, but it is usually for pro- 
tection only, and not for fuel. Peat and coal, however, 
offer the readiest solution of the difficulty ; and, for that 
reason, all information upon these subjects, and espe- 
cially upon the former, which promises to be at once 
made practicable, cannot but be of value. 

The following letter from Dr. White, the State Geol- 
ogist above referred to, appeared in the "Burlington 
Hawkeye," in September last : — 

"Quincy, Iowa, Sept. 10, 1866. 

M Editoes Hawkeye : 

" Concerning the origin of peat, there is at the pres- 
ent day almost no difference of opinion. It is the result 
of partial decomposition of vegetable matter under 
water, which condition arrested the decomposition at a 
certain stage. Wherever a pond has existed, rank 
grasses and plants have grown upon its borders, and 



iowa. 1G9 

the frosts of each returning November laid them beneath 
its surface ; their comminuted fragments narrowing the 
area, and lessening the depth of its waters, until it be- 
came the proper habitat of a peculiar moss, which con- 
tinued to flourish luxuriantly upon the rapidly decom- 
posing bodies of its parent stems, until the pond became 
filled to the brim with the carbonaceous matter thus 
produced, resembling in appearance soft black mud, the 
upper portion being usually thickly interlaced with 
fibrous roots. Peat, then, can never be found where 
there have been no ponds, and is not likely to exist, in 
large quantity, in well-drained regions. 

a When the continent was first raised from the diluvial 
sea, the surface of that portion of it which is now our 
State, was not so uneven as it now is ; but shallow de- 
pressions only existed, which gave initial direction to 
the streams. .The rains and frosts of the unnumbered 
years which have passed since then, have worn their 
channels deeper and deeper, causing the deepening also 
of their tributaries, as well as of the multitude of small 
depressions and ravines w r hich lead into them. Thus, 
wherever the streams are numerous, and their valleys 
deep, the country is perfectly drained, and, conse- 
quently, no ponds are found. But in a region where 
many streams have their rise, each depression in the 
surface would become a pond, because no accumulation 
of waters beyond sends a current across it to form a 
channel for its Outlet. The southern portions of Iowa 
present an excellent example of a well-drained region, 
and a part of the northern portion of the State, near 
the head -waters of its streams, possesses that character 
of surface upon which we may expect to find deposits 
of peat. In some parts of the world this substance forms 
the chief article of fuel ; and the principal reason why 



170 PEAT AS AN AETICLE OF FUEL. 

its use has been heretofore discarded for that purpose in 
regions favored with wood and coal, has been the want 
of knowledge of a proper method of preparing it for 
convenient use. This is now accomplished so effectu- 
ally, that, in the Eastern States, peat is coming into 
successful competition with coal ; and, since it contains 
no sulphur, as bituminous coal usually does, it is con- 
sidered superior to that fuel for many purposes. Many 
machines have been constructed for its preparation, some 
of which have failed to perform the work in the manner 
desired. The only one of these which has been brought 
definitely to my notice, and probably the most successful 
one yet constructed, is manufactured by Messrs. Leavitt 
& Hunnewell, of Boston, Mass. 

"The scarcity of timber in some of the counties of 
the northern part of the State, and the improbability of 
finding coal there, make the discovery of peat a subject 
of the greatest importance. In view of these facts, I 
have sent my assistant, Mr. Childs, to the counties of 
Franklin, Wright, Cerro Gordo, Hancock, "Worth, and 
Winnebago, with instructions to examine them for the 
purpose of ascertaining the extent and character of such 
deposits there. Peat will doubtless be found in many 
other parts of the State, wherever the peculiar condi- 
tions of its formation have existed ; but, considering 
their position to the streams of the State, the counties 
named seem to present the best field for present investi- 
gations of this kind. C. A. White, State Geologist" 

Minnesota. 

The same general remarks which have been made, as 
relating to Wisconsin and Iowa, are probably equally 
applicable, in the main, to this State. 



MINNESOTA. 171 

The following, whicli was cut from the " St. Paul 
Press," is so much to the point, and tells the story so 
much more forcibly and concisely than we could expect 
to, that we are glad to avail ourselves of it, in lieu of a 
longer article prepared for this edition. 

It will be seen that it was written on receipt of a for- 
mer edition of this work ; and while modesty might 
lead us to clip off the first and last paragraphs, other 
considerations prevail, and we acknowledge with thanks 
the kindly notice and manifest good will of the "Press." 
It says, — 

" We have before us a large volume of 168 pages, 
issued by Leavitt & Hunnewell of Boston, entitled 
* Facts about Peat as an Article of Fuel,' in which the 
whole subject of peat, its origin and composition, its 
various methods of preparation for fuel, its geographical 
distribution, its use in the smelting and manufacture of 
iron, steel, &c, its superiority as a fuel in generating 
steam for locomotive or mechanical purposes, for the 
production of gas and for other purposes, are elabo- 
rately discussed. 

"Peat exists in exhaustless deposits in every northern 
State, and this volume furnishes a vast deal of valuable 
information respecting the peat-bogs of each, generally 
compiled from geological authorities. 

" The writer recognizes the existence of large and val- 
uable deposits of peat in Minnesota, but does not seem 
to be aware that we f beat all creation ' on peat. 

"Minnesota is chock full of peat. We don't know 
how it is in the southern part of the State, but in the 
northern there is hardly a square mile of land which 
does not contain a bog of peat. 

" There is peat enough in the c&rporate limits of St. 



172 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Paul to supply the city with fuel for many decades to 
come. 

" It is a singular fact that these immense peat deposits, 
in every northern State, have lain almost entirely neg- 
lected, until within the past year or two, — the mass of 
people being almost wholly ignorant of their existence ; 
while it was only in very rare and exceptional instances 
that peat was used for fuel anywhere in the United 
States. 

"It is another singular fact, that, by a movement 
apparently simultaneous and universal, 'Peat' has suc- 
ceeded r Oil ' as the great excitement of the day, from 
the Atlantic to the Mississippi. 

" The publication of the book before us is itself a 
curious proof of the wide popular interest taken in this 
subject. But a still more remarkable and substantial 
evidence of this interest is manifested in the practical 
and characteristically Yankee form of 'peat machines,' 
of which, within a year or two, the mechanical genius 
of Yankeedom has been prolific. 

" We don't know how many varieties of peat machines 
there are, but the book before us presents an engraving 
of a set of machinery which is described as capable of 
turning out 100 tons of crude peat per day, yielding, if 
cut from a well-drained bog, about 25 to 40 tons of 
hard, dry fuel ; 'furnished to order for fifteen hundred 
dollars, — weight about 4500 pounds. 

" This is f Leavitt's Peat Condensing and . Moulding 
Mill,' which we hereby advertise c free gratis for noth- 
ing,' in the hope that some of our enterprising citizens 
may be induced to give it a trial, and relieve us from 
the miseries of green bass-wood at eight dollars a cord, 
or thereabouts." 



peat ix the manufacture of ikon. 173 

Kansas, Nebraska, Colorado, Utah, and Nevada. 

Kumors and reports of deposits of peat through this 
section of the country have reached us, from time to 
time, but as yet are not of such character as to afford 
definite or reliable information. Enough has been 
learned, however, to convince us that there are exten- 
sive deposits of good peat scattered through this region . 

That such is the fact, has been made so clear to our 
government that orders have been issued from Wash- 
ington, to the quartermasters on numerous military out- 
posts and stations, to explore, investigate, and report. 

The enormous expense incurred for the fuel required 
at many of these stations, amounting not unfrequently 
to fifty, and even one hundred dollars per cord or ton, 
renders the discovery of local supplies of any material 
which can be made to serve the purpose, a matter of no 
inconsiderable importance to our government. 

Calefornda. 

The tula marshes of this region appear, so far as we 
can learn, to be identical with peat. They abound in 
some sections of the State, and the matter is beginning 
to be investigated; Government has instituted inqui- 
ries and explorations, the result of which will doubtless 
be made public in due time. 

Peat ln the Manufacture of Iron. 

It is not generally understood that peat can be advan- 
tageously used in the manufacture of iron ; but the in- 
stances we are able to cite, and the facts we gather from 
various sources, will, to say the least, go far to show 



174 TEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

that there is good reason to believe that it may be used 
economically and profitably, and that it will tend to the 
production of superior qualities of iron. 

The time was, when the English forge-masters main- 
tained, with all the energy of conviction, that pit-coal 
could never be used in the fabrication of iron ; and they 
treated with ridicule all who made such attempts. We 
have witnessed the success of those who proved by per- 
sistent efforts and experiments that it could be done, 
and the result is its universal and successful application. 

So also with the employment of anthracite coal in the 
process of iron-making. It had baffled, for a long series 
of years, every attempt to employ it, and was repeatedly 
pronounced so surrounded with difficulties as to be im- 
practicable ; but it is well known that it is now managed 
with equal or even more facility than bituminous coal. 

We expect to be able to show that it is, not only prac- 
ticable to employ peat as the fuel in fabricating iron, but 
that it has absolutely been in full operation on an exten- 
sive scale ; in high furnaces, in puddling and refining, 
in cubilot and in reverberatory furnaces, in forges, and, 
in fact, in nearly all the processes of iron manufacture. 

It has been satisfactorily experimented upon ; but 
with a very few exceptions, we are not aware that it 
has been used to any extent, for any of these purposes, 
in our own country. 

One of the largest wire-making establishments in 
Massachusetts, famed for the superior quality of its 
wires, especially the finer grades, such as are used for 
cards, piano-fortes, &c, has consumed annually, for the 
last twelve years, from 1500 to 2000 tons of peat, cut 
and dried in the ordinary manner ; and the quality of 
the wire produced is said to be owing, in great measure, 
to the use of this fuel. 



TEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 175 

Iii England, France, Italy, Bohemia, Bavaria, West- 
phalia, Wurtemberg, and in several adjacent provinces, 
it has been successfully employed on a large scale, and 
with very satisfactory results. These practical tests 
and proofs of the value of peat for the purposes under 
consideration, surely cannot, if generally known, re- 
main long unheeded or unimproved by the enterprising 
iron manufacturers of our own country. 

In a paper on tins subject, by Mr. A. S. Byrne, pub- 
lished in 1841, he remarks that charcoal iron is the best 
known at present in the markets, and, as an illus- 
tration of its value and superiority, states that large 
quantities had been annually imported into England 
from India and China, and sold at the (then) enormous 
price of £36 (=:$173) per ton. He contends that peat- 
coke is of still greater value than the best charcoal, 
and that in the manufacture of iron it stands unri- 
valled as a fuel. 

The admixture of peat, even in its natural state, 
with common coke, in smelting iron, materially improves 
its quality ; in some instances changing the pig-metal 
from the state of "white iron" to that of "gray iron," 
technically called "foundery." 

Good peat is shown to be preferable to any other fuel, 
not only for the process just mentioned, but in welding, 
and for softening steel plates, &c. 

For the finer iron-works, peat and peat-charcoal are 
known to be better than wood-charcoal. 

Sir Eobert Kane, in his " Industrial Resources of Ire- 
land," published in 1844, demonstrates that the precious 
Baltic iron, for which, at that time, £15 to £35 per ton 
was readily paid, could be equalled by Irish iron, smelt- 
ed by Irish turf, for £6 6s. per ton. 

From other sources we learn that iron manufactured 



176 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

with peat fuel is more malleable than Swedish, and that 
tools made from it are of superior quality. 

It has been doubted if peat could be used in the pud- 
dling furnace, except with a diminished produce ; yet 
the working of iron by this fuel is known to improve its 
quality, and the welds, especially, are superior to those 
made with coal. 

It has been proved that, after peat has been well car- 
bonized, it may be employed in puddling and rever- 
beratory furnaces and forges. As to its use in blast 
furnaces, peat, which is the lightest of all coals, would 
consequently seem to be the least fitted for the reduction 
of ores. But even this difficulty has, in great measure, 
been surmounted in the high furnaces of Germany. 

M. Y. Lamy made a series of experiments to deter- 
mine the quantity of heat evolved by the burning of 
peat, compared with other combustibles, with the follow- 
ing results : — 

One kilogram, or 2 J- lbs., of the varieties of fuel 
mentioned below, evolved of caloric the following 
parts : — 

Wood charcoal 75 parts 

CoalCoke 66 " 

Charred Peat ..63 " 

Bituminous Coal 60 " 

Charred Wood 39 " 

Dry Wood 36 " 

Kaw Peat 25 to 30 " 

Wood with £ moisture. 27 " 

Thus, as regards charred peat or turf charcoal (from 
unsolidified peat) , it appears preferable to bituminous 
coal in the manufacture of iron, and is almost equal to 
wood charcoal. 

Compressed peat, thoroughly dried, gives a steady 



PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IKON. 177 

and intense heat, and can be used with decided advan- 
tage in a puddling furnace. In fact, it has been exten- 
sively used, and the results have been very carefully 
investigated by men of science, as well as of profound 
practical attainments, and with uniformly gratifying 
results, demonstrating conclusively the superiority of 
the article, although it cannot be claimed that any one 
has yet arrived at a perfect method of preparing and 
using it ; but enterprise and inventive genius are fast 
developing both. 

From a statement of experiments made by M. Le 
Serge, found in the "Repertory of Arts," vol. v., it 
would appear that ordinary turf, charred, is capable of 
producing a far more intense heat than common char- 
coal. It has been found preferable to all other fuel for 
case-hardening iron, tempering steel, forging horse- 
shoes, and welding gun-barrels. 

• Since turf is partially carbonized in its native state, 
it must evidently, when properly manufactured and con- 
densed, and fully charred, afford a charcoal very supe- 
rior in calorific power to the comparatively porous 
article prepared from wood by fire. 

At Konigsbronn, in Wurtemberg, they execute with 
peat alone, the refining and second fusion of the pig 
metal ; its puddling, the reheating of the lumps and 
rolling the bars and plates ; in fine, all the operations 
that are made with coal in English forges. The works 
are under the care of M. Yeberling. 

The peat is of three kinds, as follows : — 

1st. Peat of Dattenhausen. — Color varying from 
dark yellow to brown, and containing a very consider- 
able amount of fibre or interlaced filaments ; yields ashes 
3£ to 4 per cent. 

12 



178 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

2d. Peat of Guntzburg. — Color, dark brown to 
black, compact, and yields ashes 6 to 7 per cent. 

3d. Peat of Wilhelmsfield. — Dark brown, and 
yields ashes 5 to 6 per cent. 

The peat used at these works is first dried in the air 
at the place where it is dug, the blocks being turned 
occasionally, and, after some three or four weeks' ex- 
posure, are transported to the iron-works, and there 
further dried in kilns by artificial heat, and stored in 
dry quarters for use. 

Of the three kinds of peat mentioned above, the 
proportionate diminution of weight and volume, when 
dried, is as follows : — 

1st. 2d. 3d. 

Diminution of volume . . . .24 .10 .13.5 
" " weight 10 .19 .12 

Cost of one metrical quintal = 220 lbs., delivered at 
the iron- works of Itzelberg, is 1 fr. 29 c. = 36 cents, 
or about three dollars and fifty cents per ton ; the dis- 
tance being two kilometres, or 1^ miles. 

M. Berthier's analysis of peat used at Konigsbronn is 
as follows : — 

Carbon 24.40 

Volatile Matters 70.60 

Ashes 5. 

It is employed without admixture of other fuel in the 
refining, puddling, and reverberatory furnaces. 

According to M. Lefebvre, whose statements ap- 
peared in the " Annales des Mines " in 1839, peat was 
used to a considerable extent at the iron-works of 
Ichoux, in Les Landes ; and the proportions which 
resulted from the operations at the refining and puddling 
furnaces and forge operations at these works, chiefly 
through the use of peat, were as follows : — 



PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IUON. 1 7!> 

11-4 kilograms pig iron produced 100 kilograms bar 
iron, with 93 kilograms peat, and 52 kilograms wood. 

116 kilograms pig iron produced 100 kilograms bar 
iron, with 93 kilograms peat, 37 kilograms wood, and 
9 kilograms coal. 

The peat of Ichoux contains two and a half times 
more ashes than the peat used at Konigsbronn, in Wur- 
temberg, of which mention has just been made on pre- 
vious pages. 

In 1842, the establishment in Ichoux was the only 
one in France where peat was used to any extent for 
the processes above referred to ; but with the knowledge 
of the success attained there, and the low price at which 
it might be obtained at numerous points in the kingdom, 
it would seem impossible that many years should elapse 
without its general introduction and use in the numer- 
ous iron and steel works there. 

At the iron-works of Ransko, in Bohemia, peat is 
used with great success. These works are situated at 
the south-west extremity of Bohemia. They consist of 
two high furnaces and two cubilots, which are worked 
with a mixture of turf and charcoal. There are also 
several refining fires, and the establishment gives em- 
ployment to about four hundred men. 

The turf is brought from turbaries situated some 
leagues from Ransko. It is there dug or cut in the 
usual manner, in bricks or oblong pieces, about fourteen 
inches long by six inches square. These bricks are 
exposed in piles in the open air during the fine season, 
where, in drying, they contract to nearly one third their 
original size. In general these peat bricks are not 
used until a year after having been dug. They are 
stored under sheds attached to the high furnaces, and 
sheltered from the rain, but receive no other or further 



180 PEAT AS A^, T ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

attention or preparation. It was at first proposed to use 
k in the carbonized state ; but, as regards this particular 
kind of peat, the carbon obtained was not found to be 
much, if any, more advantageous than the article in its 
crude state ; and as the process involved some expense, 
without corresponding profit, it was abandoned as use- 
less. Numerous other experiments were tried in the 
preparation and curing of it ; but most were abandoned, 
for the reason that little, if any, profit was obtained over 
the original methods adopted ; and they therefore con- 
tinued to employ non-compressed turf, simply dried in 
the open air. 

Two varieties of peat are used here, weighing re- 
spectively four hundred and five hundred and eighty- 
seven lbs., the cubic metre of thirty-five and one quarter 
cubic feet English. They cost at the iron-works 13d. 
English, or 26c. United States, per cubic metre of 
thirty-five and one quarter cubic feet English. The 
weight and cost of the same measurement of the differ- 
ent kinds of charcoal used in the high furnaces with the 
peat are as follows : — 

Weight. Cost at the Works. 

Charcoal, resinous wood . . 275 lbs. .80c. 

" heavy wood . . . 468 " 1.06c. 

" as mostly used . . 314 " .84c. 

The cost of a volume of charcoal is thus shown to be 
more than three times that of an equal volume of peat, 
and it would therefore seem to be desirable to exchange, 
as soon as possible, the charcoal for the peat. 

The ore smelted here is clay iron-stone of moderate 
quality, and the fuel is generally turf and charcoal 
mixed. The quantities employed in the making of a 
ton of iron are, turf thirty-five cwt., costing 8s. 10d., 
and charcoal thirty cwt., costing 24s. 7d., — together, 



PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IKON. 181 

£1 13s. 5d. ; and iron of the very highest character is 
produced. 

At Schlakenwerth, in Bohemia, near Carlsbad, is a 
high furnace which works with a mixture of equal quan- 
tities of wood charcoal and peat charcoal. The peat is 
found upon the plateaux of the Erzgebirge, at an elevation 
of more than one thousand metres, and the weather and 
climate are such that it can be produced to advantage 
only during about two months in each year. It is then 
carbonized in much the same manner as wood, in cir- 
cular piles ; and a very dense charcoal is obtained, which 
on an average does not contain more than five per cent, 
of ashes. The cubic metre of thirty-five and one quarter 
cubic feet English of this peat charcoal weighs six hun- 
dred and sixty lbs., while the same amount of wood 
charcoal weighs only three hundred and ten lbs. The 
analysis of this_ peat charcoal shows fixed carbon sixty- 
seven, volatile matters thirty, ashes three. 

In the cubilot furnaces of Bohemia, also, a mixture 
of equal parts of peat charcoal and wood charcoal is 
employed with results highly satisfactory. 

Peat is employed in the iron-works of Weiherhammer, 
in Bavaria. It is procured from the numerous tour- 
bieres of the Fitchtelgebirge, which are worked during 
the fine season, after which the turf is left to dry for 
about six months. It is then stored, but is not erh- 
ployed in the iron-works until a year after it has been 
dug. The peat is of good quality, compact and heavy, 
and, on burning, yields not more than four to five per 
cent, of ashes. 

At the Weiherhammer Works are two puddling 
furnaces, one of which is generally in operation. The 
puddled iron is converted into bars in the ordinary 
charcoal forges, or in a chafing fire, which is fed with 



182 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

peat alone. The density of this peat is hardly suf- 
ficient to produce the temperature required to remelt the 
iron ; combustion is therefore hastened by means of a 
forced current of air, which is furnished by the blowing 
machine of the refining furnace, and in this manner the 
re-melting of the pig metal is effected with the greatest 
facility. The result of these operations is stated as 
follows : Two hundred and eighty-one lbs. pig metal, 
with eighty-five and thirty-two one-hundredths cubic 
feet raw peat, produced two hundred and twenty lbs. 
bar iron. These proportions are equivalent to two 
thousand eight hundred and sixty-one lbs. pig metal 
and eight hundred and sixty-eight cubic feet of raw 
peat to produce one ton (two thousand two hundred 
and forty lbs.) of bar iron. 

In Germany, the gas of the high furnaces where peat 
is used has been satisfactorily employed in the refining 
of iron and the puddling of steel. At Magdeburg, in 
the Hartz, not only is iron refined, but steel of excellent 
quality is fabricated, by the use of gas. The beneficial 
results obtained by the use of gas in refining iron, the 
economy of the fuel, the smallness of the loss, and the 
amelioration of the quality, have been urged as reasons 
why it should be extensively introduced in peat-pro- 
ducing countries. 

It is considered that the known successful results of 
this method are of the greatest importance to the whole 
of Northern Germany, where extensive beds of turf and 
lignite prevail, which will afford a great resource to 
those districts. The same process would not be less 
beneficial to France. It has been adopted to a con- 
siderable extent in Sweden, where coal is scarce. 

In an able pamphlet published some twenty years ago 
by J. W. Rogers, it was suggested that the overplus 



PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 183 

working population of Ireland might be permanently 
and advantageously employed in the preparation of dif- 
ferent kinds of fuel from the immense bog districts. 
He states that he " has been in the habit of having peat 
charcoal prepared for smith's use, infinitely in prefer- 
ence to any coal," and that "if within the reach of the 
manufactories of iron, at the price for which it can be 
produced, no other fuel would be used." He adds, 
" Charcoal of peat has been found by analysis to possess 
almost identical qualities with wood charcoal. Pre- 
pared as it hitherto has been, however, it is more 
friable, and therefore more fitted for many purposes, 
such as the working of iron, manufacture of gunpowder, 
&c. ; but peat charcoal is quite capable of being pre- 
pared so as to obtain a density little if at all inferior to 
wood charcoal." This,, it should be borne in mind, 
refers to charcoal from peat in its crude or unmanufac- 
tured state. Mr. Rogers adds, -— and the correctness of 
his remarks is confirmed by statements from numerous 
sources, — that, "when condensed peat is carbonized, 
it gives a fine coherent coke, which amounts to about 
thirty per cent, of its weight, and contains very little 
ash. The density of this coke is greater than that of 
wood charcoal, being found to range from 913 to 1040. 

The objection often urged, as regards iron ships of 
war in action, that the splintering is so great that this 
material cannot be safely used, is met by the assertion 
that the evil arises entirely from one cause, — that of 
iron being made mostly by sulphurous fuel. Iron made 
with peat charcoal will not splinter. 

We have seen it stated, that, in some parts of Eng- 
land, horse-shoes made with peat are considered so much 
more durable than those made with any other fuel, that 
nearly double the ordinary price is paid for them. 



184 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

M. Bussou de Maimer, a ]wopos of the prizes of 
three thousand francs, offered by the Societe* d'En- 
couragement of Paris, in 1855, for the best process by 
which a fuel adapted for household and manufacturing 
purposes may be economically prepared from peat, 
notified that society to the effect that he had succeeded 
in preparing an excellent solid, compact, and tenacious 
charcoal, or rather coke, by distilling peat mixed with 
small bituminous coal. 

This coke, he says, is admirably adapted for the 
forging of steel and other metallurgical operations. 

A paper of considerable interest and importance 
appeared in the "London Times," soon after the Inter- 
national Exhibition of 1862, upon the distinct varieties 
of fuel, peat, and coal, of which several specimens were 
there exhibited. 

Not much was to be learned from the display of mere 
lumps of raw peat ; yet there were several illustrations 
connected with peat, of great practical value. 

Peat is applied as fuel in Great Britain in the smelt- 
ing of lead in the "ore hearth." This method is 
extensively employed in the north, and, in the case of 
rich ores, is maintained by some experienced smelters 
to be superior to every other. 

It is a singular circumstance, that in former times it 
was practised successfully in Derbyshire, where it be- 
came extinct ; and that attempts to re-introduee it have 
signally failed. 

In Bavaria, peat-bricks are extensively used under 
locomotive boilers ; and, in Sweden, Ekman has long 
employed peat in his gas-welding or reheating furnaces. 
It is fashioned into bricks, and subsequently dried by 
artificial heat, at a temperature almost sufficient to cause 
incipient charring. 



PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 185 

In the Swedish department were specimens of iron 
manufactured in such furnaces, with prepared peat as 
the fuel, by Baron Hamiltop, Nericia, at whose works 
the annual consumption of peat for this purpose is said 
to be very large. 

In the Italian department, And. Gregorini exhibited 
steel made in Siemens' gas puddling furnace, with peat 
and lignite as fuel. 

Furnaces constructed on this principle, whether for 
the use of peat or other kinds of fuel, are strongly recom- 
mended as worthy the attention of our iron-masters 
and other practical metallurgists who are interested in 
economizing fuel. It is claimed also that they are 
specially adapted for the manufacture of glass. 

Messrs. Siemens, of London, are said to have been 
most successful in the application of this principle ; and 
we have, therefore, obtained from their agents, Messrs. 
Tuttle, Gaffield & Co., of Boston, a description of their 
furnace, which we insert at length, not only for the in- 
terest which we are sure it will have with iron and glass 
manufacturers generally, but from the fact, so distinctly 
claimed for it, that it is especially adapted for the suc- 
cessful and economical treatment of metals and glass, 
by the use of peat-fuel. 

The Siemens Regenerative Gas Furnace, is the joint 
invention of Messrs. C. W. and F. Siemens, of London. 
For many years they labored to bring their ideas iuto a 
thoroughly practical form ; and the result has been the 
introduction of one of the most perfect arrangements 
for the conservation and utilization of heat that has ever 
been put in practice. 

The inventors claim the following advantages for 
the Regenerative Gas Furnace. 

1st. Saving of fuel, amounting to from forty to fifty 



186 TEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

per cent, in the quantity, besides which the most inex- 
pensive qualities of fuel, such as peat, slack, coke-dust, 
and lignite may be employed, producing a money-saving, 
in many instances amounting to seventy-five per cent. 

2d. Unlimited command of heat without intense 
chimney draught, owing to the principle of accumulation 
involved. 

3d. Great purity and gentleness of flame, which 
largely diminishes the oxidation or deterioration of the 
material heated in the furnace, and improves the quality 
of the product. 

4th. Increased durability of furnace, owing to the 
absence of ashes, and a perfect uniformity of heat 
throughout the furnace. 

5th. Saving of space within the works, and great 
cleanliness of operation, the fuel being converted into 
gas outside the works. 

6th. Complete command of the intensity of the heat, 
and of the chemical nature of the flame, which may be 
arrested or changed from a reducing to an oxidizing 
flame, or the reverse, at any one moment, tending to 
facilitate and improve all metallurgical operations. 

7th. Complete absence of smoke from the stack, 
which renders this furnace beneficial to the public in 
large towns. 

As now made, this furnace consists of two distinct 
parts : the producer, in which the fuel is converted into 
gas for supplying the furnace, and the furnace proper, 
including the regenerators. 

The gas-producers are of various forms, according 
to the nature of the fuel used, and are quite simple in 
their construction. They are situated outside the fur- 
nace building, and the gas is conducted to the furnace, 
through flues, to any distance which may be desired. 



PEAT IN TILE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 187 

The furnace is so constructed that, underneath the 
heating chamber, are placed transversely four regener- 
ator chambers, which are filled with fire-bricks, built 
up with spaces between them to admit the passage of 
gas and air. 

These regenerator chambers work in pairs, the two 
under the right hand end of the furnace communicating 
with that end of the heating chamber, while the other 
two communicate with the opposite end. For instance, 
the gas from the producer passes through the main gas 
flue, and enters at the bottom of one of the regenerator 
chambers, at the right-hand end of the furnace, and the 
air at the bottom of the other, whereby they are kept 
separate up to the moment of entering the heating cham- 
ber, but are then able to mingle intimately, producing 
at once an intense and uniform flame, which distributes 
itself all over the heating chamber. The heat, having 
once performed its work in the furnace, is not now 
wholly released from further service, or only partially 
utilized, as in the old style of furnaces, but is bound to 
an endless round of duty, and is carried down into the 
other pair of regenerators, and all but a very trifling 
portion of it is there arrested by the packing of fire- 
bricks, and garnered up for future service. 

When this pair of regenerators has become fully 
heated by the passage of the hot products of combus- 
tion frgm the furnace, and the opposite pair correspond- 
ingly cooled by the upward passage of the cold gas and 
air, the valves in the main gas and air flues are reversed, 
and the separate currents of gas and air enter at the 
bottom of these heated regenerators, beneath the left- 
hand end of the furnace, take up the heat that has been 
stored in them, carry it back to the furnace, and the 
surplus is then deposited in the right-hand set of rcgen- 



188 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

erators. And thus the process of reversing is repeated 
at fixed intervals, so that two of the regenerators are 
always accumulating the heat which would otherwise be 
wasted, but which, when the action of the furnace is 
reversed, is always carried back to the furnace by the 
incoming currents of gas and air, which, as they pass 
upwards through these heated regenerators, attain a 
temperature equal to a white heat, before they meet and 
ignite in the furnace, and thus add the carried heat to 
that due to their mutual chemical action. The arrange- 
ment is so perfect that, while the furnace and upper 
portions of one set of the regenerators are charged with 
a most intense heat, the amount which escapes through 
the waste flue will not exceed 300° Fahr. 

Although the saving of heat is made most promi- 
nent in this description, there are other great advantages 
gained by this process which would commend this kind 
of furnace to general use even if the same amount of 
fuel was required to work it as in the old process. 

It is evident that the purity of the flame not only 
insures, in all metallurgical operations, a superior prod- 
uct, but a much smaller percentage of waste, and an 
increased durability of furnace. And the pecuniary 
value of these combined advantages far exceed even the 
gain which is made in the cost of fuel. 

One of the most important advantages to be gained 
by the adoption of this invention is observed in the fact 
that it utilizes what has been heretofore regarded as in- 
ferior fuel, such. as sulphurous coal, and the slack and 
waste of the mines, &c, as also those immense deposits 
of peat to which the attention of manufacturers is now 
being largely directed. Professor E. Daniels, of Chi- 
cago, in alluding to this subject, says, — 

"It is scarcely possible to estimate the advantages 



TEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 189 

which the west may derive from this invention. Oar 
coal is at once redeemed from comparative inferiority, 
and becomes a source of cheap heat and motive power, 
adequate, both in quantity and quality, to the vast and 
varied demands of manufacturing industry." 

What Professor Daniels so truly says of the inferior 
coals of the west, will apply with tenfold force to those 
extensive tracts of undeveloped fuel which abound 
throughout the northerly portion of the United States. 
This fact has been recognized in Europe ; and in many 
parts of the Continent, particularly in Italy, where coal 
is comparatively dear, peat has been used in these fur- 
naces for the manufacture of iron and steel, with the 
most successful results ; and in this country measures 
are now being taken to build furnaces in which peat 
alone shall be used, on the plan of those now so suc- 
cessfully worked by M. Gregorini, in Lombardy. 

After years of patient application, the Messrs. Sie- 
mens now have the pleasure of seeing- their valuable 
invention adopted and successfully operated by the most 
important of the iron, steel, and glass manufacturers in 
Europe. Among them can be enumerated the estab- 
lishments of Sir W. G. Armstrong & Co., Messrs. 
James Russel & Co., Mersey Steel and Iron Co., 
London and North-western Railway Co., Messrs. T. 
Firth & Sons, Messrs. jSTayler, Vickers, & Co., the 
Royal Arsenal, Woolwich; Messrs. Krupp & Co., 
Essen, Prussia ; Messrs. Mayer & Co., Styria, Austria ; 
Arsenal Imperial de Lorient, France ; Peelroso Iron 
Co., Seville; M. Gregorini, Italy; the Paris Gas 
Co. ; the Plate Glass Co.'s of St. Gobain, Cixey, Aix 
la Chapelle, &c. ; the Vielle Montague Zinc Co., &c. 

It is natural to suppose that the manufacturers 
of the United States will not be backward in securing 



190 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

the use of this important invention ; and several of the 
most enterprising iron, steel, and copper manufacturers 
have already arranged for the immediate construc- 
tion of these furnaces in their works : and the results 
which these will show cannot fail to insure their uni- 
versal adoption, and must produce a complete revolu- 
tion in the application of heat in all metallurgical oper- 
ations. 

The Moulded Peat Charcoal Company, at the Inter- 
national Exhibition of 1862, "showed a material of 
apparently excellent quality ; but, without satisfactory 
statistics on the economy of the processes by which it 
was produced, the jury could not pronounce upon it." 

The jury (1862) gave an honorable mention to Mr. 
J. Brunton. " His statements as to employment of the 
condensed peat on a large scale referred only to a very 
short period, and were considered as requiring further 
confirmation." 

Mr. W. E. Newton, in 1862, before the Society of 
Arts, said that peat, if properly prepared and properly 
used, gave a calorific power equal to, if not greater than 
coal ; but the use of peat in manufactures was of greater 
importance than simply as a fuel for heating purposes. 
A great many experiments, more particularly on the 
Continent, had been made with peat as a fuel for metal- 
lurgic purposes, and it had been found that it produced 
iron of a very superior quality. He had seen specimens 
which came up to the best quality of Swedish iron. 
Every iron manufacturer knew that if he could get peat 
to stand the blast, then it was infinitely superior to coal 
for those purposes, for the simple reason that it contained 
no sulphur. They could produce iron with peat, from 
the worst brands, which would almost equal the best 
Swedish or Russian iron, simply owing to the absence 



PEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IKON. 191 

of these deteriorating chemical agents which existed 
in coal. 

D. K. Clark, C. E., in a paper read before the Brit- 
ish Association in London, in 1865, says, — 

" In Germany, peat mixed with wood-charcoal is very 
extensively used in the production of iron ; the peat, as 
prepared there, not being sufficiently solid to do the 
work alone : but it is found that the greater the propor- 
tion of peat that can be used, the better is the quality of 
the iron produced. The gas delivered from the high 
furnaces has also been satisfactorily employed in the re- 
fining of iron and the puddling of steel. The value of 
peat in the production of iron has long been established. 
Iron metallurgists are agreed in the opinion that iron so 
produced is of very superior quality. In every stage of 
iron manufacture, and in welding, peat-charcoal is most 
valuable. At Messrs. Hick & Son's forge, in Bolton, a 
large mass of iron, about ten inches square, was heated 
to a welding heat with peat charcoal, made at Horwich. 
The time occupied was less than the operation would 
have taken with coal ; the whole mass was equally heat- 
ed through without the slightest trace of burning on the 
outside ; and in hammering out the mass, as much was 
done with one heating as ordinarily required two heat- 
ings to effect. The importance of obtaining an abun- 
dant supply, at cheap rates, of peat-charcoal, cannot, 
therefore, be too highly estimated." 

The charcoal made from peat, at Horwich, is extreme- 
ly dense and pure. Its heating and resisting powers 
have been amply and severely tested, and with the most 
satisfactory results. At the Horwich Works pig-iron 
has been readily melted in a cupola. About 80 tons of 
superior iron have been made with it in a small blast 
furnace, measuring only six feet in the boshes, and 



192 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

about 26 feet high. The ore smelted was partly red 
hematite, and partly Staffordshire ; and the quantity of 
charcoal consumed was 1 ton 11 cwt. to the ton of iron 
made ; but, in a larger and better-constructed furnace, 
considerably less charcoal will be required. It has also 
been tried in puddling and air furnaces, with equally 
good results, considerably improving the quality of the 
iron melted. For this purpose, the fuel was only par- 
tially charred, in order not to deprive it of its flame, 
which is considerably longer than that from coal. Some 
of the pig-iron made at Horwich was then converted 
into bars, which were afterwards bent completely double, 
when cold, without exhibiting a single flaw. 

Mr. Sanderson, of Sheffield, in a report made to an 
English company, says, — 

" You are certainly the first who have succeeded in 
smelting iron ores in a blast furnace with peat alone as 
a fuel ; and I am convinced that you have thereby 
opened out a large field of industry both for England 
and Ireland, as well as Scotland, and doubtless other 
countries. 

" All iron metallurgists have agreed in one opinion, 
that if peat by any means could be produced of suffi- 
cient density to enable it, when charred, to stand the 
blast necessary for the production of iron, the iron so 
produced would be of a very superior quality. Some 
have thought it would be even superior : to iron made 
with wood-charcoal. You have most fully succeeded in 
obtaining this density in your peat fuel. Indeed, I have 
seen samples, taken from the bottom of your furnace, 
which had been subjected to a high heat from forty to 
fifty hours, perfectly hard and strong. The sample of 
pig-iron which I have received and tested for malleable 
iron, is very satisfactory. As you progress, and pro- 



PEA! IN THE MANUFACTURE OF EBON. 193 

produce graver pig-iron, and further manufacture it 
into malleable iron, its superior quality will be ap- 
preciated for cables, boiler-plates, armor-plates, wire, 
and all other kinds of iron requiring more than ordi- 
nary strength. Do not allow yourselves to suppose 
that you have already produced iron of the value and 
quality which you will be able to produce when proper 
appliances are brought to bear upon what you have 
already done." 

Mr. Fothergill, when reporting on experiments with 
peat-charcoal iron conducted under his supervision at 
Messrs. Piatt's Iron Works, at Oldham, says, — 

" I have no hesitation in stating that the experiments 
w r ere a great success. The directors can judge of the 
tenacity and quality of the iron from the severe charac- 
ter of the test to which it has been submitted, namely, 
having been completely doubled over when cold, -with- 
out exhibiting a single crack. I deem it my duty to 
assume the directors that I am fully aw^are of the impor- 
tant position in which they are placed ; yet I have no 
hesitation in saying, that I have every confidence in 
their ultimate success : and the opinions I have pre- 
viously expressed as to the importance and value of the 
undertaking remain not only unchanged, but considera- 
bly strengthened, by the results of the experiments 
referred to." 

Messrs. Browm and Lennox certify, that the strength 
of the peat-charcoal iron, proved by them in the ordi- 
nary manner, is considerably above the average strength 
of iron of the best brands. The latter testimonial is es- 
pecially valuable, considering the disadvantage necessa- 
rily attendant on smelting iron in a new furnace with 
new materials. 

Professor Emmons, Geologist to the State of New 
13 



194 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

York, concludes some remarks on the subject of peat as 
follows : " I shall state only one more application of this 
material, viz., as a substitute for charcoal in the reduc- 
tion of iron. The coal which is formed from it is equal 
to any coal : hence it may become of great importance 
in those sections of country where fuel is scarce, or as 
it furnishes a resource in this important business when 
the ordinary means are expended." 

Mr. McDougall, of the Caledonia Iron Works, 
Montreal, who supplies the Grand Trunk Kail way with 
car wheels, states that, for giving toughness to the 
metal and uniformity of chill, qualities so essential to 
car wheels, peat fuel is unsurpassed. 

We have the following brief report of an experiment 
in smelting iron with peat, at these works, made in 
October last. The cupola was charged with two layers 
of iron and anthracite coal. The third or topmost 
layer was iron and peat. The time was forty minutes 
less than with coals alone. The iron smelted by the 
peat was hotter when drawn off from the coals, and 
was said to be more compact, and more like wrought 
iron, than the other. The test was a severe one, the 
proportion being twelve of iron to one of peat ; the pro- 
portion for coals being seven to one. 

The "Montreal Gazette," of Dec. 1, 1866, says, — 

"We were shown, yesterday, a small piece of bar- 
iron from the puddling and rolling mills of Messrs. 
Morland, Watson, & Co., from the first blooms ever 
made in this country with peat fuel alone, and, we 
believe, the first on this continent. The specimen 
shown to us was of the very highest quality, and equal 
to the very best Swedish iron. It was bent, when 
cold, by a vice, and doubled close up at right angles, 
with an edge without a crack or flaw appearing, the 



TEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IRON. 195 

outer edge remaining smooth and sharp. A severer 
test of the, tenacity of* the iron could not have been 
applied ; a result so satisfactory could scarcely have 
been hoped. We are told that no iron manufactured 
from coal in this country would stand such a test. The 
fact is one of great importance for Canada, in view of 
its large supplies of peat and iron. We may add that 
the time taken in the manufacture was not greater than 
that usually taken when coal is used. There was no 
special adaptation of appliances. The furnace was an 
ordinary coal one, and the men were accustomed to the 
use of coal." 

Mr. Campbell, manager of the mills above referred 
to, states that — 

" The peat fuel was tested in an ordinary puddling 
coal furnace, and no alteration or adaptation was made, 
although this might have been done, and a large saving 
of fuel effected. 

" The pig-iron used was Dalmellington brand A, a 
strong iron, soft and very tough. 

" The quantity of peat fuel* consumed was nearly 
double the weight of coal used on ordinary occasions. 

"In my opinion, and with the present furnaces, by 
mixing peat with Pictou coal, we could produce iron 
equal to the best charcoal iron, and at no more expense 
than the present cost of our iron, the quality of which 
is equal to the best refined English iron. 

"With the furnaces as at present constructed we 
could not use peat alone, the combustion of the gas 
given out not being sufficiently perfect to produce the 
heat required for puddling to advantage, resulting in 
waste of fuel, and additional labor to the men. 

" If we could get the extra price for the quality of 
iron turned out, there would be no doubt about the 



196 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

result, but I fear this could not be obtained, as almost 
any description of iron seems to sell which is cheap. 

"I send you samples of the iron, made at the trial, 
which I consider equal in quality to best charcoal iron, 
and superior, almost, to any description of iron imported." 

Professor Johnson remarks, "Dried peat is extensive- 
ly used in puddling furnaces, especially in the so-called 
gas puddling furnaces, in Corinthia, Steyermark, Sile- 
sia, Bavaria, Wirkenberg, Sweden, and other parts of 
Europe. In Steyermark, peat has been thus employed 
for twenty-five years. 

" When peat or peat coal is employed in smelting, it 
must be as free as possible from ash, because the ash 
usually consists largely of silica, and this must be 
worked off by flux. If the ash be carbonate of lime, it 
will, in most cases, serve itself usefully as flux. In 
hearth puddling, it is important, not only that the peat 
or p'eat coal contain little ash, but especially that the 
ash be as free as possible from sulphates and phosphates, 
which act so deleteriously on the metal. 

"It has been found, at Rothburga, in Austria, that 
by substitution of machine-made and kiln-dried peat for 
wood in the gas puddling furnace, a saving of 50 per 
cent, in the cost of bar-iron was effected in 1860. 

" What is to the point, in estimating the economy of 
peat, is the fact that, while 62 cubic feet of dry fir- 
wood were required to produce 100 lbs. of crude bar, 
this quantity of iron could be puddled with 43 cubic 
feet of peat. 

"In the gas furnace, a second blast of air is thrown 
into the flame, effecting its complete combustion. Dell- 
vik asserts, that at Lesjoeforss, in Sweden, 100 lbs. of 
kiln-dried peat are equal to 197 lbs. of kiln-dried wood 
in heavy forging. 



TEAT IN THE MANUFACTURE OF IKON. 197 

" In other metallurgical and manufacturing operations, 
•where flame is required, it is obvious that peat can be 
employed." 

A gentleman formerly employed in the iron business 
in Austria, writes to us recently, " Peat is the only fuel 
of many rolling mills in Austria. The peat of the 
Alps there is of good quality. In a puddling furnace 
there are wanted 163 to 200 English cubic feet of dry 
peat per English ton of puddling-iron, and in a re- 
heating furnace about the same quantity of very dry 
peat per ton of wrought iron. This iron is puddled 
from white pig-iron. The furnaces for puddling and re- 
heating are all gas furnaces. 

"Also in blast furnaces for making pig-iron, peat is 
used in Austria, but not converted into coal, only dry. 
Peat is mostly mixed with charcoal in the older Austrian 
blast furnaces., the half of every part : but in blast 
furnaces, which are built especially for using peat, this 
fuel can be used alone or mixed with coke or anthracite." 

The "London Mechanics' Magazine," in a recent 
issue, after dwelling at some length on the use of peat 
fuel for railroad and steamship service, concludes as 
follows : " Mere compression of the peat is not sufficient 
to insure its economical use : it requires condensation, 
which quality cannot be imparted to it by the most 
powerful pressure. 

" But however successful may be the results of using 
peat, either in locomotives or for marine boilers, we do 
not think it is destined, at present, to play so important 
a part here as in the manufacture of iron. It is here 
that peat fuel will, in all probability, come first into 
exclusive use, owing to its great superiority over coal 
in every stage of iron and steel manufacture." 



198 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 



PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 

Sir R. Kane, before quoted in these pages, stated, in 
1844, that the steamers plying between Limerick, Clare, 
and Kilrush, in Ireland, were using peat for fuel. 
The " Garry Owen " steamer made the passage between 
Kilrush and Limerick, fired with turf (although in the 
midst of a coal region) , in three hours twenty minutes : 
distance, about forty-five miles. The Shannon steamers 
were mostly using it ; and its consumption in mills, 
factories, workshops, as well as for domestic purposes, 
was steadily increasing. 

Some years since a patent was obtained by Mr. 
Williams, managing director of the Dublin Steam 
Navigation Company, for a method of converting the 
lightest and purest beds of peat moss or bog into the 
four following products, each of which possesses very 
valuable properties : — 

1. A brown combustible, solid, denser than oak. 

2. A charcoal twice as compact as that of hard 
wood. 

3. A factitious coal. 

4. A factitious coke. 

One of the most important results ascertained with 
these products was, that with ten hundred weight of 
the factitious coal the same steam-power was obtained 
in navigating the company's ships as with seventeen and 
a half hundred weight of pit-coal alone : thereby saving 
thirty per cent, in the stoivage of fuel. 

Mr. D'Ernst, artificer of fireworks at Vauxhall, proved, 
by the severe te^t of colored fires, that the turf-charcoal 
of Mr. Williams was twenty per cent, more combustible 
than that of oak. 



TEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 199 

Mr. Oldham, Engineer of the Bank of England, 
applied it in softening his steel plates and dies, with re- 
markable success. Mr. Williams's method of preparing 
the peat was given as follows : \Vhen freshly cut, the 
fibre of the peat is broken up, and the mass is placed 
between cloths, and pressed by a powerful hydraulic 
press, which condenses it to one third of its original 
volume, and to three fifths of its weight, through the 
loss of moisture. This condensed peat, when carbon- 
ized, gives a fine coherent coke of about three tenths the 
weight of the turf as cut ; burns freely, producing in- 
tense heat, and leaving only a very small percentage of 
ash. Its density is greater than wood-charcoal, and the 
cost of production is about twenty shillings per ton. 

Mr. Brunton, before the Society of Arts, in 1862, 
called attention to the fact, that trials with his prepared 
peat, upon a sufficient scale, under the boiler of an or- 
dinary steam-engine of twenty-horse power, had demon- 
strated that the peat, as a heating power, did two and 
one third times the duty of coal. The ordinary con- 
sumption of coal in the furnace, was twelve cwt. per 
hour. An equal quantity of his prepared peat lasted 
two hours and twenty minutes, producing the same 
amount of steam per hour, and doing the ordinary work 
of the engine. 

Mr. Paul, in the paper we have before referred to, 
says, " As regards the use of peat for fuel, it now re- 
mains only to consider what are the circumstances under 
which it can be used for this purpose, and under which 
there is an advantage in using it rather than coal. 

" I can best illustrate this by a case within my own 
experience. During the last four years I have had oc- 
casion to manufacture a large quantity of bricks in one 
of the western islands of Scotland, and for that pur- 



200 PEAT AS AN T ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

pose required fuel for raising steam to drive the brick 
machinery, and for burning the bricks. Coal could be 
delivered at the works, including 4s. for cartage, at 22s. 
per ton : but I found that the peat, of which there was 
abundance close to the works, was capable of raising 
steam well, and of being used for burning the bricks, 
and that I could, for 8s. , put down at the boiler, or at the 
kiln, a quantity of peat equivalent to one ton of coal ; 
thus making a difference of 14s. between the use of a ton 
of coal and the use of a quantity of peat equivalent to it. 

"This was equivalent also to a saving of 7s. per thou- 
sand in the cost of the bricks. The advantage would 
have been still greater had there been more efficient 
means for bringing in the peat from the moor, which, 
as it was in this case, cost as much as the peat on the 
moor, or about 2s. per ton. 

"The applicability of peat for the purpose of fuel 
on board steamers is indubitable. I have employed peat 
as the only fuel for steam-boilers during the last four 
years, and have found it to answer admirably. It has 
also been tried by Mr. James Napier, of Glasgow, on 
board his steamer, the f Lancefield ; ' and he is of opin- 
ion that it might be used in the place of coal." 

Professor Emmons, in a report to W. H. Seward, 
Governor of New York, in 1839, says, " I have been in- 
formed that peat, as a fuel for steam-engines, has been 
proved, by actual experiment, of great value. To im- 
part to it the power of emitting, during combustion, a 
lively flame, a small quantity of tar is mixed with it, 
which, of course, creates a larger volume of flame, 
which is a matter of considerable moment when em- 
ployed in generating steam. The experiments referred 
to were made on board the f Great Western ' during her 
last passage ; and such was the result, that a large 



TEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 201 

amount of peat was taken on board for her homeward 
passage." 

From the " London Engineer " we learn that " a pa- 
per was read by Mr. P. F. Nursey, before the Society 
of Engineers, at Exeter Hall, which contained some 
interesting and valuable information. The paper allud- 
ed to the probability of an exhaustion of English coal- 
fields, owing to the increasing annual consumption, 
which, between the years of 1850 and 1860, was at the 
rate of two and three fourths million tons. . . . The 
question of peat was considered at some length. The 
author, considering the subject of great importance, had 
collected much valuable information. 

" The deposits of peat in Great Britain and Ireland 
were stated to occupy an area of about six million acres, 
and to vary in thickness from two feet to fifty feet ; and, 
at an assumed average of twelve feet, an acre would 
yield about 3500 tons of dried peat, or a total quantity 
of 21,000,000,000 tons. The process of manufacture 
of ? condensed peat ' was fully detailed. It was shown 
that the cost of the fuel produced did not exceed that of 
coal at the pit's mouth. It was shown to possess quali- 
ties superior to coal, especially its heating power. Trial 
of the condensed peat had been made by Mr. B. Fother- 
gill on a river-steamboat, in which twelve cwt. were 
consumed in two hours twenty minutes, the ordinary 
consumption of coal being twelve cwt. per hour. The 
peat gave no smoke, and left no clinkers. The locomo- 
tive engineer of the Belfast and Northern Counties Rail- 
way had tried the condensed peat on that line. In a 
trip of seventy-four miles, the total quantity of fuel burnt 
was fourteen cwt., one quarter, fourteen lbs., — the 
train,* including engine and tender, weighing seventy 
tons. The time occupied was three hours, nine min- 



202 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

utes. The trial proved satisfactory. An analysis of the 
peat by Mr. Ricard was given, which showed it to con- 
tain but a trace of sulphur, and no phosphorus, which 
rendered it peculiarly adaptable for iron-smelting and 
other purposes, where the presence of either of those 
bodies was so pernicious. 

" Particulars were given of an experiment, on a prac- 
tical scale, by Mr. G. Murrall, at the Creevelea Iron 
Works, Leitrim, in which condensed peat was used for 
smelting iron-ore. The iron was equal to auy charcoal 
iron. It was tried by Mr. Anderson, C. E., whose 
report showed the strength of the iron to be forty per 
cent, above ordinary Scotch pig. 

" The peat was afso tried in a puddling furnace, at the 
Mersey Steel Works ; and the iron produced therefrom 
was drawn into tubes and T irons, — a very high test. 

"The question of producing gas was gone into, and 
experiments by Mr. Jones and Mr. Yersmann, the for- 
mer engineer and the latter consulting chemist to the 
Commercial Gas Co., were detailed, and tables of results 
given, which showed the superiority of condensed peat 
over coal in this particular. It was proved to yield a 
larger quantity of gas in a shorter time than coal: 

..." The author concluded by observing that the 
question of fuel was a most important one, especially so 
in its economical bearing ; and expressed a hope that 
the merits of peat, as a fuel, would be allowed to weigh, 
that the subject might be investigated with that vigor to 
which it was entitled." 

The following is abridged from the "London Mechan- 
ics' Magazine " : — 

" The upper portions of a peat-bed abound with roots 
and coarse' fibres, and produce an inferior fuel, which 
will not stand the blast nor make good charcoal. To 



PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 203 

make good fuel, the roots must be removed and the 
smaller fibres broken up. A machine does this, and 
makes c condensed ' peat, which burns freely, 'bears a 
strong blast, gives great heat, is smokeless, and leaves 
less ash than average coal or coke. Two and a half to 
three tons of peat make one ton of excellent charcoal. 
The heating power of condensed peat has been proved 
to be superior to that of coal ; and it is well adapted to 
steam-engines, marine, stationary, or locomotive. It 
saves half the time of getting up steam, and will do 
double duty as compared with coal. The absence of 
smoke and clinkers, and the preservation of the grates 
and fire-boxes from the effects of sulphur, are important 
additional advantages. This peat has been tried on a 
river-steamer with success. The vessel was under steam 
2h. 20m., during which time only 12 cwt. was burnt, the 
average consumption of coal being 12 cwt. per hour; 
and in this case the full effect was not obtained, as the 
grate-bars were too far apart for peat, and a portion fell 
through. 

"The locomotive superintendents of three railways in 
Ireland made a trial of condensed peat on the Belfast 
and Northern Counties Railway, to test its fitness for 
locomotives. During a trip of twenty-seven miles, 
there was an excess of steam, though the fire-door was 
continually open, and the damper down, for the greater 
part of the distance. The pressure at starting was 100 
pounds. The commencement of the trip was up an in- 
cline of 1 in 80, four miles long, with double curves. 
While ascending this incline, the pressure rose to 110 
pounds, and afterwards to 120 pounds, with the fire- 
door open. The speed was forty miles per hour. While 
running, there was no smoke, and little at the stations. 
The fire-box was examined at the end of the trip, and 



204 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

very little clinker was found ; and the smoke-box was 
free from cinders and dust, — a proof that the fuel had 
stood the blast well ; and it is the recorded opinion of 
the experimenters that the peat was, in every respect, 
well suited for locomotives. 

"In view of such facts, the wonder is that it has not 
come into more extensive use. One reason why it has 
not may be in the limited quantity made for steam pur- 
poses, the greater value of peat lying in its conversion 
into charcoal, for which it is used with the best results. 
Another cause may be the reluctance to leave the beaten 
track. 

" This substitute for coal deserves attention in conr 
nection with the working of underground railways. It 
is agreed that a radical change must be made in the 
motive-power ; that even Mr. Fowler's new engine must 
be superseded by one having no fire at all ; and that the 
engine must contain water already heated to a tempera- 
ture necessary to produce a sufficiency of steam to work 
the required distance without combustion in the tunnel. 
In this extremity, why not try the fuel which did so 
well on the Irish railway trip ? The absence of smoke 
and sulphurous vapor should be a sufficient inducement, 
independent of the economy that is very probable." 

A foreign correspondent, before referred to, writes, 
"For all the locomotives of the railroads in South 
Bavaria, peat is the only fuel % " and the economy 
effected by its use, in the wear and tear of the engines, 
is stated by the officials, in their reports, to be very 
considerable. 

At a colliery in the north of England, connected by 
a railway with large iron-works, several trips were made 
with condensed peat fuel, a number of empty trucks 
being conveyed to the pit's mouth, and brought back 



PE Vi AS U'PLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 205 

loaded. The fuel served admirably, and all present 
were satisfied it did quite as much duty as coal. 

On one trip, however, they were obliged to wait some 
time at the pit's mouth, the load not being ready. The 
fireman, from some cause, neglected his fire ; and con- 
sequently, when the trucks were loaded, and the train 
ready to start, he found the steam-gauge indicated a 
pressure of only sixty pounds, and the fire very low. 
This alarmed him, as the return journey was up a steep 
incline, and he had already been delayed very consider- 
ably. However, in three minutes after throwing into 
the furnace a few shovelfuls of peat, the steam rose to 
one hundred and ten pounds, and the train was soon 
speeding its way back. Had coal been thrown on, 
instead of peat, it would have smothered the fire, so 
little was there in the furnace at the time. 

The above illustrates very clearly the freedom of 
combustion which characterizes peat, and the intensity 
of heat produced by it. 

At the Horwich Works, the fuel was tested against 
coal under the boiler there. This was done on two 
consecutive days, the fire having, on each occasion, 
been raked out the night previous. The following 
results were obtained : Coal got up steam to 10 IBs. 
pressure in 2 hours 25 minutes, and to 25 lbs. pressure 
in 3 hours ; peat-fuel got up steam to 10 lbs. in 1 hour 
10 minutes, and to 25 lbs. in 1 hour 32 minutes ; 21 
cwt. of coal maintained steam at 30 lbs. pressure for 9^ 
hours ; 11^ cwt. of peat-fuel maintained steam at the same 
pressure for 8 hours. But in addition to this a large 
economy is effected by the use of peat-fuel for the gen- 
eration of steam, in the saving of boilers and fire-bars 
from the destruction caused by the sulphur in coal, from 
which peat is free. 



206 PEAT AS AN' ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

We have seen a statement of a locomotive running 
upwards of three months, over seventy miles of road, 
and using peat, which show a saving of more than 
thirty per cent, by weight over coal, using coal furnaces 
and flues, with dampers down and fire-doors open all 
the time. 

A trial on the Paris and Lyons (France) Railroad 
is thus reported by the engineer : " We got up steam 
with peat in thirty minutes, coal requiring two hours. 
We ran sixteen miles to a gravel pit, up a steep grade, 
and from there took a load of 136 tons, eighty miles 
farther, when the blaze escaped a considerable distance 
above the chimney, which became red hot, and the 
boiler covering taking fire, we had to stop and extin- 
guish it. After repairs we returned to Paris at a speed 
of thirty-eight miles per hour, the heat again increasing 
as we advanced. 

"The fuel having no smoke and much gas, keeps up 
a constant hot flame. The pressed peat gives far better 
results than that which is not pressed. In fact, while 
using it, the generation of steam was so rapid that I 
stood with my hand on the valve lever all the time, 
fearing an explosion.'' 

Although numerous experiments and trial trips have 
been made in this country with peat for fuel, it has not 
yet been used to any great extent upon any of our prin- 
cipal lines, owing mainly to the fact that it has not been 
manufactured in any one place on so large a scale as to 
afford a constant supply, indeed, notwithstanding it 
has been produced in numerous places, few engaged 
in the enterprise seem to comprehend the enormous 
amount of this or any other kind of fuel which is 
requisite to supply the market. The arrangements for 
the present year, in some places, however, bid fair to 



PEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 207 

be on a scale somewhat commensurate with the fuel 
interests which are likely to draw on them for supply. 

It is well known, that in every experiment tried upon 
railroads, the testimony of engineers and practical men 
has been unanimous in favor of peat, even when it has 
been used in its crude state, and under every disad- 
vantage. 

Although many cases of this kind have come to our 
knowledge, from sources which we cannot but consider 
reliable, still we have experienced great difficulty in ob- 
taining written reports covering that amount of detail as 
to time, weight, service, and comparative value which 
we should be glad to make record of. 

We select a few, which give the general character of 
the whole, and from which it cannot but be apparent 
that the fact is clearly demonstrated that peat is the fuel 
for railroad service. 

Some of its advantages are plainly discernible, and 
may 5 perhaps, be briefly stated as follows : — 

It ignites readily and burns freely, generally with a 
large volume of flame. Combustion appears to be 
almost perfect, with a very clear and intense heat, pro- 
ducing no cinders, no sparks, no soot, very little smoke, 
and no clinker ; the consequence of which is, that under 
a boiler, steam is generated very much more quickly 
than by coal, the flues and tubes of the boiler are kept 
free from soot, clean and bright, and therefore in better 
condition to make the heat available, and the grate-bars 
are not burned out and injured as with coal, while on 
the score of comfort to travellers, it may be said that 
the annoyance and actual suffering occasioned by cin- 
ders, sparks, and smoke, which, in spite of the numer- 
ous devices for consuming them, we are now constantly 
subjected to, are, by the use of this fuel, entirely obvia- 



208 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

ted ; and so clearly are these advantages demonstrated, 
that we are satisfied that wherever this fuel is fairly 
tried, every railroad will endeavor to have its own peat 
bog and fuel manufactory. 

Another writer adds, " The economy of peat in the 
matter of burning out grates and furnaces is well worth 
the attention of railroad men and manufacturers. The 
average destruction of locomotive furnaces on the New 
York and New Haven Railroad is said to be more 
than two per day. Sometimes a furnace is- ruined by a 
single trip of the engine. Peat will destroy no more 
furnaces than wood." 

N. F. Potter, Esq., of Providence, R. I., President 
of the Narraganset Brick Company, informs us that he 
has used peat under their large boilers for several 
months, with highly satisfactory results as to its heating 
properties, and at a large reduction of expense as com- 
pared with wood or coal. 

He has also found it equally serviceable and econom- 
ical in running a small steamboat, likewise for a porta- 
ble engine used for occasional out-door service. 

A trial was made on the New York Central Railroad, 
Jan. 3, 1866, of which the following account is fur- 
nished us by the master machinist : — 

"Engine No. 248, built at Schenectady Locomotive 
Works — cylinder 16-inch bore, 24-inch stroke, 5 feet 
driving-wheels: Michael Cosgrove, engineer, Michael 
Fox, fireman. Left Syracuse at 8 o'clock and 40 
minutes (40 minutes behind time), with 25 empty 8- 
wheel box freight cars. Started with 120 pounds of 
steam : the engine worked well, and took us along pretty 
sharp, as we made up the 40 minutes in going 25 miles, 
and arrived at Port Byron on time. The steam did not 
run below 120 pounds any of the time, and was often 



TEAT AS APrLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 209 

from 125 pounds to 130 pounds. When the engine was 
working the strongest she would steam the best. 

" We made time all the way very easy, although we 
had a strong head wind all the way, and snowing at times 
quite fast, and very cold. We took on a trifle over 
four tons of peat at Syracuse, which was all we had. 
We could have run to Fairport with it (71 miles) if we 
had not been detained at Palmyra about one hour and a 
half, waiting for a break-down. We had to keep our 
fire up while waiting, and used peat enough to take 
us much farther. We took wood at Palmyra. After 
leaving Palmyra we used our peat up before reaching 
Macedon, and finished the trip with wood. Five tons 
of peat would have taken us to Rochester with the train 
we had, although it was a very bad day. The same 
engine would have used about 3} cords of wood running 
to Palmyra, while we used not quite 4 tons of peat for 
the same distance. It gave us as much steam as wood, 
and burned a beautiful fire. Our trip was a perfect 
success, and I am sorry that there was not more present 
to witness it. We used a coal-burning grate. 

" I am confident that we can use peat in locomotives 
for fuel, as well as for stationary engines, with the peat 
properly cured, and the right kind of grate used for 
burning it in." 

The "Hartford Times," of June 5, 1866, furnishes 
the following account of two trips made on the Hart- 
ford and Springfield Railroad : — 

w Some facts were developed on the experimental rail- 
road trip from this city to Springfield, last Saturday, 
with peat for fuel on the locomotive, which are worthy 
of the public notice, in view of their bearing on the sub- 
ject of our undeveloped natural wealth, and important 
questions of economy. 
14 



210 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

" Without attempting full speed, the trip to Spring- 
field was made in 40 minutes, including a stop of three 
minutes at Thompsonville, which is five minutes better 
time than the regular express train makes. 

"On the round trip, 1400 pounds of peat were used 
(the box contains between two and three tons ; so it will 
be seen that peat is by no means too bulky for long rail- 
road distances between cities) . It is thus proved (and 
it corroborates the results of the previous trial) that, 
compared with coal, a trifle over one ton and a quarter 
of peat is equivalent, on a locomotive, to a ton of coal. 

"This ton of coal, however, costs the railroad folks, 
say seven to eight dollars. 

"Peat, on the contrary, can be furnished in abun- 
dance at $1.50 per ton ! The Hartford and New Haven 
Railroad Company have paid out during the past year 
over $100,000 for coal, using, perhaps, 12,000 tons. 

" They now own a peat-bed in Berlin, contiguous to 
the line of the railroad, and containing eighty acres of 
peat, of great depth, from which they can supply the 
machine shops and locomotives with peat, at a saving 
of more than seven tenths of the annual cost of coal. 

" There was found to be but very little smoke from 
the peat ; what there was, was light, thin, and not of- 
fensive ; not one tenth of the smoke produced by wood, 
and, what is still more important to the travelling pub- 
lic, no cinders. The whole substance burns to ashes. 
It was found to burn the freest, and to give the greatest 
rate of speed, when the furnace full had burned away 
to about one third full. 

"It generated steam faster than either wood or coal, 
gaining so rapidly that the furnace had to be thrown 
open ; and the last six miles of the return trip was made 
without using a particle of fuel. 



TEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 211 

"The capacity of peat to generate and maintain a 
high and equal rate of steam power was tested a few 
days since by the trial of this fuel on a train of ten 
cars, very heavily laden with Portland stone. Before 
reaching this city the brakes were put down so as to 
increase the resistance to an amount equal to five more 
cars, without very sensibly affecting the motion." 

A trial of peat-fuel was recently made on one of the 
railroads leading from Boston, particulars of which we 
have taken pains to ascertain from the superintendent 
of the road, although he states that the fuel was used, 
not for the purpose of making an accurate test at that 
time, but simply to ascertain something of its burning 
qualities, and the arrangement of fire-box, &c, neces- 
sary for making, at a subsequent time, careful test trial 
of its value for locomotive use, compared with wood, 
which is the fujel now used on the road. 

The section over which the trains were run is a branch 
road of only seven miles, — down and return; of this 
seven miles, four miles average a grade of 45 feet, and 
2£ miles average 65 feet to the mile, while one mile of 
the 2} is at a grade of 80 feet. 

The quantity used was not weighed. The engine was 
a wood burner, with large fire-box and very strong 
exhaust, kept for occasional extra service, and noted 
as an enormous consumer of wood. 

Neither the superintendent nor the engineer had ever 
used this kind of fuel, and neither had ever seen it used. 
The trips were made, down and up, on good time, and 
with steam at 100, and blowing off at that, except while 
going up grade, when, at the hardest point, it fell to 
70, but rose to 100 readily before the end of the trip. 
On one trip ten pounds of steam was gained while going 
up the 80 feet grade. 



212 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

The superintendent says, "We made good steam, 
and run our trains on time, and that is what was never 
done with coal, on the first time trying, by a long shot. 
It makes a splendid fire, gives an intense heat, with no 
cinders, no soot, and very little ashes ; and I see no rea- 
son why it should not be used on locomotives, if they are 
only properly fitted for it. We want pure peat, free from 
sand, in order to avoid the clinker which melted sand 
will make, and then all we want is to learn how to use 
it ; but that we can learn much easier than we learned 
how to burn coal. I am going to try it again ; but I 
think I have done well, certainly for the first time, the 
whole thing being entirely new to us, and considering 
also that we tried it on an old engine which we never 
use except in case of emergency, because she burns 
three cords of wood where the other burns only two." 

We also learn of trials made on the Hudson River 
Eailroad, the Eastern, and the Vermont Central, each 
of them with uniformly successful results. 

The following reports of the use of this fuel on the 
Grand Trunk Eailroad are conclusive as to its merits, 
and will be found to give details and suggestions which 
cannot fail to be of importance to those who would inves- 
tigate the matter with a view to practical operations : — 

An experiment was made with well-dried peat fuel 
upon engine No. 158, five-feet driving wheels, sixteen- 
inch cylinders, and twenty-six-inch stroke, drawing 
twelve loaded cars. 

Distance run per ton of 2240 lbs. of fuel . . 40.33 miles. 

Fuel used per mile 55.54 lbs. 

Greatest pressure of steam 140 

Least pressure of steam 100 

During the experiment fuel was put on in small quan- 



TEAT AS APPLIED FOR GENERATING STEAM. 213 

titics, no smoke issued from the stack, a stead}-, brilliant, 
white fire was kept up, and steam generated with great 
rapidity. The damper was kept closed, and air admitted 
through a slot in the furnace door. Not an atom of ash 
or cinder was left in the smoke-box, ash-pan, or upon 
the wire gauze of spark-catcher. The grate inside was 
one of Lester's patent, having a well in centre, with 
horizontal openings to admit draft. The bottom of fire- 
box was scarcely ever entirely covered with the fuel, the 
steam being generated too rapidly to allow of a large 
quantity of fuel being put into the furnace. 

Experiment with green peat fuel, containing twenty- 
five per cent, of water, upon engine No. 65, six-feet 
driving wheels, fifteen-inch cylinders, twenty-one-inch 
stroke, drawing an express train of nine passenger cars, 
all heavily laden, from Montreal, going west, Oct. 
3,1866: — 

Distance run 101 miles. 

Fuel used 8000 lbs. 

Fuel used per mile 79 " 

Average speed, including stoppages, per hour . 23 miles. 

Greatest pressure of steam 123 lbs. 

Least pressure of steam 90 " 

This experiment was one to show whether, with an 
engine out of order and very much overburdened, steam 
could be made with green peat in sufficient quantities to 
meet an unceasing demand during the whole time of 



running. 



The grate was one of Mr. Eaton's patent, with hori- 
zontal openings, and the furnace door had a slot to 
admit air. 

In ascending grades the pressure of the steam gauge 
invariably increased. The damper was nearly closed at 
all times, the slot in the door open nine by two inches, 



214 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

and with never more than from six to nine inches of fuel 
in the fire-box. Abundance of steam was raised ; and 
for a distance of many miles the pressure of steam did 
not vary. 

On the return trip next day, with a similar weight 
of fuel, and train of six passenger cars, — 

The total distance run was 112 miles. 

Fuel used per mile 71 lbs. 

Average speed, including stoppages .... 22 miles. 

Greatest pressure of steam 125 lbs. 

Least pressure of steam . 85 " 

Experiment with engine No. 65, in good working 
order, and with peat fuel containing about 20 per cent, 
of water (express train, consisting of six passenger 
cars) : — 

Total distance run 177 miles. 

Total consumption of fuel 7936 lbs. 

Consumption per mile 45 " 

Maximum consumption between stations . . 60 " 
Minimum consumption between stations . . 30 " 
Average speed, including stoppages .... 25£ miles. 

Greatest pressure of steam 125 lbs. 

Least pressure of steam 86 " 

Distance run' per ton of fuel 50J- miles. 

Cost of fuel for the trip, at $3.50 per ton . $12.25 

Cost per mile run for fuel 7 cents. 

During the experiment the damper was kept partly 
open, and the slot in furnace door of an area about 
nine inches by two inches. Fuel was fed in sufficient 
quantities to hide the bottom of the fire-box, and through- 
out the trip there was not the slightest deficiency of 
steam. 

On the return trip the consumption of fuel was less, 
the train being lighter. 



PEAT AS APPLIED FOB GENERATING STEAM. 215 

How these results compare with those obtained from 
coal and wood, will be seen from the following state 
ment, recently published, derived from experiments 
made on the Boston and Worcester Railway in August 
last : — 

Average miles run to one ton of coal 59.91 

Average miles run to one cord of wood .... 40.09 
Average miles run with one ton of peat, as above . 50.50 

The value of these results will be better appreciated 
from a comparison of cost of the several fuels. 

For the amount of coal, wood, and peat required to 
run a locomotive the distance mentioned in the foregoing 
experiment, say 177 miles, the cost is stated as fol- 
lows : — 

Coal, 2.95 tons, at $10 $29.50 

Wood, 4.41 cords, at $7 30.87 

Peat, 3£ tons, at even $5 17.50 

The country at large, as well as the railroad interest, 
is concerned in these developments in reference to an 
article of fuel which has lately attracted so much at- 
tention. 

Another experiment was made on the same road, with 
the view of determining whether, with a diminution of 
the blast, the same quantity of steam could be generated 
as obtained on former occasions, with the blast usually 
employed for wood. 

For this purpose the nozzle of the blast-pipe was in- 
creased one half of an inch, or from 2£ to 2J inches 
diameter, making an additional area of fifty per cent. 
The same engine, No. 65, was employed as on former 
occasion. Mr. Eaton accompanied the train, for the 
purpose of putting the fuel to the severest test possible. 



216 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

.The engine, when strained to the utmost of its power in 
ascending heavy grades, or in quick running on a level 
road, produced abundance of steam, and kept blowing 
off the whole time. By this diminution of the blast ad- 
ditional power was gained, and the consumption of fuel 
smaller than on any previous occasion. 

Still another experiment made on the same road in 
November, 1866, affords in detail, the results effected 
with enlarged blast-nozzles of the engine. Engine No. 
158, with 16 freight, 1 passenger, and 1 baggage car, 
run from Montreal to Prescott Junction, 112 miles. 

Total rise in grade 260 feet. 

Total weight of 18 cars and freight . * . 665,000 lbs. 

Distance run . . 112 miles. 

Lost time made up in running between Vau- 

dreuil and Matilda, 75 miles 110 minutes. 

Total weight of peat consumed .... 7450 lbs. 
Value of fuel, at $3.50 per ton ... . $11.65 

Fuel consumed per mile run 66£ lbs. 

Cost of fuel per mile 10 cents. 

Number of car-miles run 2016 miles. 

Fuel consumed per car-mile run .... 3.69 lbs. 

Cost of drawing a car, containing over ten tons of 
freight, one mile, a little over half a cent. 

The engine was in the same condition as for burning 
wood, with the exception of the blast-nozzles, which 
were enlarged from 2f inches to 2| inches diameter, or 
34 per cent. 

The engine driver had never before seen peat burn. 
The fuel used on all these trials was from the Bulstrode 
Peat Works, owned by James Hodges, Esq., of Mon- 
treal. 

Messrs. Parsons & Co., refiners of oil, at East 
Boston, required for their process super-heated steam 



PEAT ka APPLIED FOK GENERATING STEAM. 217 

to degree and extent which it was found extremely 
difficult to obtain with wood or coal of any kind ; and 
under the most favorable circumstances required two 
furnaces, one for generating and the other for super- 
heating. A faithful trial of peat was made, in view of 
statements concerning the intensity of heat generated 
by it, detailed report of which was promised us, but has 
not yet come to hand. The result, however, may be 
briefly stated as follows : The peat fuel proved to be 
entirely satisfactory. Steam was not only generated, 
but super-heated to the full extent and temperature 
required ; and it was satisfactorily demonstrated that 
with this fuel the whole service demanded might be had 
from one furnace instead of two, — an item of no light 
importance. The fuel was from the works of the 
Boston Peat Company. 

A trial of the same fuel was recently made at the 
Lowell Bleachery, under their large boilers (engine, 
500 horse power), of which we have only verbal, 
though reliable report. It made more steam than coal, 
and accomplished with ease the severest service required 
at the works. The superintendent says he considers it 
a perfect success, and that all now required is to adapt 
the fire-boxes for it, and learn how to use it. 

This latter remark will doubtless be found to express 
the opinions of numerous parties when commencing to 
use peat fuel. That it is a good fuel is universally 
conceded, which is much more than was even admitted 
for coal when that was first introduced. The impor- 
tant questions now are as to the arrangements of 
furnaces, grates, drafts, etc., and the manner of using 
the fuel to the best advantage ; in other words, n the 
people " have to learn how to use it, but the task is an 
easy one. 



218 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 



Peat for Domestic Purposes. 

We have heretofore dwelt mainly upon the use of 
peat in the manufacture of iron, and for steam purposes 
as relates to manufacturing and transportation interests. 

For domestic purposes generally, we can have no 
doubt, from our own experience and the testimony of 
others, that ton for ton, it is of equal value with, and 
in some respects more economical, than coal. 

It is not our habit to commend this fuel as invariably 
and for all purposes superior to all others, but in a 
multitude of cases where parties have had small lots for 
trial, they have brought their ready testimony, that it 
was the best fuel they ever used; and this, we firmly 
believe, is to be the general verdict. 

In sayiDg this, however, we wish it to be borne in 
mind distinctly, that with peat fuel, as with every other 
kind of fuel, its value for service depends as much or 
more upon the manner in which it is used, and the 
methods and appliances for using it, as upon the 
peculiar qualities and characteristics of the fuel itself. 

It can be burned in open grates, close stoves, furnaces, 
ranges, and all the ordinary variety of heating apparatus 
in use in dwelling-houses. As regards open grates, 
ranges, and furnaces, it will be found that the fire-pot, or 
receptacle for fuel, should be smaller in area and of less 
depth than are at present in use for coal. It requires 
to be renewed somewhat more frequently than coal, 
and should be burned with very much less draft, indeed 
so soon as the fuel is once well ignited, it will generally 
be found desirable to close the draft almost entirely. 

On subsequent pages, under the head of "How to 
use Peat Fuel," we shall offer some suggestions, which 
are of importance in this connection. 



PEAT FOB DOMESTIC PURPOSES. 219 

We have taken no pains to obtain written certificates 
bearing upon its use for these purposes, and probably 
sufficient testimony has been given, incidentally, on 
preceding pages ; but we have at hand letters from 
two gentlemen, for many years residents of Lexington, 
and well known there, which are sent to us voluntarily, 
and which, as exceptions to the general rule, that "a 
prophet is not without honor save in his own country," 
are perhaps to be considered as even stronger evidence 
than testimony obtained farther from home, and are 
illustrative of what we have learned to be the experience 
of many others. 

Mr. S. W. Robinson, of Lexington, writes, — 
" I have of late been using peat, which was prepared 
at your works, and am favorably impressed with its 
importance as an article of fuel. That it is better than 
the coal with which families in this vicinity have been 
supplied for two or three years past, there can be no 
reasonable doubt. It is easily ignited, burns freely, 
and leaves neither cinders or other impurities behind. 
One great advantage it possesses is, that it may be used 
in smaller quantities than coal, and may be burned any- 
where, in grate, stove, or hearth. I am persuaded that 
it is well adapted to culinary purposes, and is not only 
better, but more economical than coal or wood, which 
is surely an important desideratum." 

Captain Win. D. Phelps, of Lexington, writes, — 
w We used two tons of your peat during the summer 
and autumn, in a Stewart's cooking stove of medium 
size ; and for all purposes of the kitchen we give it the 
preference to wood or coal, especially for baking and 
broiling meats, &c, and for heating irons; and, as a 
peat fire can be graduated to suit the weather and the 
occasion, it is far preferable to coal. It makes a hotter 



220 peat as an article of fuel. 

fire also, and takes but fifteen minutes from the starting 
of the fire to heating the oven ready for baking. My 
neighbors who have used your fuel are satisfied and 
pleased with it." 

The following extracts from an article in the "Boston 
Transcript," are also to the point : — 

" Possibly a few words in relation to peat may not be 
without interest to your readers. 

"I have used it for the past two months, both at my 
residence and place of business, in furnace, range, and 
open grate ; and am convinced that any who try it will 
be surprised, as I have been, to find how rich an article 
of fuel we have lying in immense quantities in the 
swamps about us, and capable of being produced at 
moderate cost. I have experimented with it in various 
ways, and am decidedly of opinion that, although the 
process of manufacture is doubtless open to considerable 
improvement, the article, as at present furnished, is, in 
many respects, superior to coal. It ignites readily, 
burns freely, leaves a handsome white ash, but no 
clinker, gives an intense heat, and is easily managed. 
For open fires it is charming. 

"Many years ago, as doubtless many of our oldest 
citizens will recollect, peat in its crude, unmanufactured 
state, was sold in Boston in considerable quantities. It 
is extensively used in many places in New England, 
and that, too, in preference to wood, even where wood 
is abundant. The high price of fuel the past season has 
led many to seek for it ; and I have heard of those who 
have laid in considerable quantities of it in Newton, 
Reading, Lynn, and in numerous places on the Cape. 

" In many parts of Europe it constitutes the principal 
article of fuel for domestic purposes, and is used to 
some extent on locomotive engines and in large manu- 



INTENSITY OF HEAT GENERATED BY PEAT. 221 

factoring establishments. For the manufacture of iron 
and steel, it is said to be superior to any other fuel in 
existence. Is not the fact that abundant stores of this 
fuel are f on deposit ' in various sections of New Eng- 
land worthy the attention of enterprising men ? " 

It is quite probable that peat will soon be manu- 
factured in a neat form, specially adapted for kindling 
purposes ; and movements are also projected for in- 
troducing it for sale in our cities, in boxes, in much the 
same manner as kindling-wood is now sold, while for 
ordinary purposes it will be sold in bulk, like coal. 

Intensity of Heat generated by Peat. 

It is an acknowledged fact, that peat produces an 
intense heat, — a feature of so much importance as to 
entitle it to prominent mention and careful considera- 
tion. Its virtue in this respect is much increased when 
properly prepared, solidified, and dried, and it reaches 
its maximum of heating power when solidified and 
charred or coked. Mention has been made of its 
peculiar qualities in this respect, in several of the 
statements on preceding pages, but their importance 
will be more clearly comprehended when taken in con- 
nection with the facts in an interesting article on the 
" Calorific Value of Fuel" which we find in the 
"American Railway Times," and which contains re- 
marks so pertinent on this point, that we quote as 
follows : — 

" There are, in all, five important kinds of fuel only : 
these are wood, peat, coal, charcoal, and coke ; the first 
three being natural, and the last two artificial fuels. 
The elements of which each of these is composed are 
practically identical, the differences of character being 



222 



PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 



due to the proportion of those elements entering into the 
composition of each kind of fuel ; and according to 
those proportions, each fuel takes its relative position in 
the scale of value. Taking the comparative chemical 
composition of the various kinds of fuel, according to 
Dr. Machaltie, their percentage stands thus : — 





Carb. 


Hyd. 


Oxyg. 


Nitr. 


Sulp. 


Ash. 


Wood (dried at 280° F.) . 


50.0 


6.0 


42.9 


1.0 




1.0 


Peat (dried at 220° F.) . 


57.0 


5.5 


31.0 


1.5 




l5.0 


Coal 


85.0 


5.0 


4.0 


1.0 


1.0 


4.0 


Charcoal 


87.0 


3.0 


7.0 






3.0 


Coke 


92.0 








1.5 


6.6 



The amount of heat produced by fuels in their com- 
bustion does not always constitute their relative value. 
For some purposes, it is apparent that this would be 
the best criterion, but as a rule, in metallurgic pro- 
cesses, the quantity of heat is of far less importance 
than the intensity , or power to raise substances to the 
highest temperature ; and the fuel which affords the 
greatest quantity of heat is sometimes incapable of 
producing the greatest intensity. 

" In determining the intensity of the heat produced, 
it is necessary to know the available quantity of heat 
produced in the combustion of a pound of fuel, the 
weight of the products of combustion, and the quantity 
or number of units of heat required to raise the prod- 
ucts of the combustion of a pound of fuel one degree 
Fahrenheit. 

"Where very high temperatures are required, the fuel 
which should be selected ought to approach as near as 
possible to pure carbon in its composition, and for the 
reason that carbon is the best substance for the pur- 
pose. 



HOW TO USE PEAT. 223 

" We now see the reasons for making coal into coke, 
and wood into charcoal. Coal cannot produce a tem- 
perature equal to that obtained from coke, neither can 
the temperature of wood be compared with that of char- 
coal. And this results from the relative accession of 
carbon, and reduction of oxygen and hydrogen in them. 
This must be referred to the great difference between 
quantity and intensity of heat. If we cannot raise 
sufficient steam from a boiler by the use of one ton of 
coal, we can easily meet the point by burning two tons ; 
but, if the fusing point of metal cannot be attained with 
one ton of coal, it by no means follows that any ad- 
ditional amount of fuel will insure the required result. 
The great distinction to be observed is between quantity 
and intensity of heat. The first of these two conditions 
depends upon the quantity of fuel ; but the last is re- 
ferred entirely to the quality of fuel. 

" Twenty tons of coal will not give a temperature so 
great as that afforded by one ton of coke." 

The intense heat generated by peat-fuel is a subject 
of frequent remark, and will eventually be dwelt upon, 
we think, as a very important consideration in estimat- 
ing its value. 

How to. use Peat. 

It should be borne in mind that peats differ in quality 
and characteristics, and consequently in their heating 
properties and value, full as much as wood and coal in 
all their varieties ; and that the results obtained from 
peat-fuel, as from any other, will, in all cases, depend 
very much upon the manner in which it is burned. 

We are told that a certain service is obtained from a 
boiler with one cord of wood or one ton of coal, but 
unless we know whether the wood be pine or hickory, 



224 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

or the coal Pictou or anthracite, we have no certain 
data from which to make accurate or even approxi- 
mate calculations ; so also of peat, it is necessary to 
know somewhat of its characteristics in each case re- 
ported, in order to form a correct estimate of its relative 
value for the service done. The terms by which to 
designate these characteristics and qualities, so as to be 
generally understood and adopted, have yet to be deter- 
mined upon, but the necessities of the case will doubt- 
less bring them out in good time. 

That peat is a good fuel is universally conceded, 
which is much more than was even admitted for coal 
when that was first introduced. The important ques- 
tions now are, as to the arrangements of furnaces, 
grates, drafts, etc., and the manner of using the fuel to 
the best advantage ; in other worcis, "the people " have 
to learn how to use it, but the task is an easy one. 

It is an acknowledged fact that very few people have 
any correct idea of the economical use of fuel of any 
kind. 

Everybody is supposed to know how to burn wood, 
but very few burn it economically, or even prudently. 
The waste of wood is immense. 

So also of coal. It was. a long time after hard coal 
was introduced before the community became even 
tolerably familiar with its use ; but at the present time 
it is otherwise. With plenty of kindling wood, an 
abundant supply of coal, a clear grate and a strong 
draft, a good fire is started and kept up, " regardless 
of expense ; " but for a moderate fire on a mild day, or 
for light service, few are skilful enough to kindle or 
maintain it. 

Such being the case in regard to wood and coal, is it 
reasonable to expect that any one, at the present time, 



HOW TO USE PEAT. 225 

is thoroughly posted as to the best and most economical 
methods of using peat? 

Our own experience has taught us that, as a general 
thing, peat-fuel should be burned in smaller area and 
bulk than coal, but renewed in small" quantities some- 
what more frequently, and with very much less draft. 
The heat is clear and intense. The quantity of kindling 
wood required is very small. 

It is a matter of no slight importance to ascertain and 
introduce the best stoves, furnaces, grates, ranges, <&c, 
for burning peat. 

Thus far little has been done in this line, though a few 
enterprising stove dealers have already turned their 
attention to it, with good prospect .of success ; and 
their advertisements are beginning to announce " Peat 
Stoves," &c. 

The appliances required are simple, and there will be 
little difficulty in producing what is wanted, or in alter- 
ing and adapting, by very simple changes, many of the 
favorite styles now in use for coal. 

It is not, however, in the matter of stoves and appli- 
ances for domestic purposes alone, that these improve- 
ments are called for, but in fire-boxes for locomotives, 
furnaces under boilers, and wherever fires are to be used 
in the arts, manufactures, &c. ; and it is clearly to be 
seen that this opens a wide field for experiment and 
invention among boiler and engine-builders. 

As relates to the use of peat-fuel for locomotives, 
Mr. Hodges, before referred to, has offered some re- 
marks which correspond so nearly with our own obser- 
vations and the general tenor of statements made to us 
by others who have investigated the matter, and are, 
withal, so clearly expressed, that we quote : — 

"Peat-fuel, even with the limited experiments as to the 
15 



226 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

best mode of using it economically, has proved itself 
equal if not superior to any known fuel, and it is no 
more than reasonable to anticipate greater results when 
its use becomes general, and furnaces are expressly 
adapted to its use. 

" As locomotives are now constructed for the combus- 
tion of wood, coal, or coke, the waste of steam power 
to create a blast or draft is enormous, it being esti- 
mated by competent authority that two fifths of the 
whole quantity of fuel consumed is expended for that 
purpose. Now, well-dried peat requires but very little 
draft through the furnace bars, it being necessary, 
for a perfect combustion of the immense quantity of 
gas that it gives out, to admit air through the furnace 
door. It is therefore much more than probable that, 
by altering the blast to meet the limited require- 
ments of peat-fuel, at least twenty per cent, additional 
power will be given to all peat-burning engines, or a 
corresponding decrease in the quantity of fuel used may 
be effected. 

"No sparks issue from the smoke-stack of a locomotive 
when burning peat-fuel, even with the present enormous 
blast ; and when they are especially adapted for it, fires 
from sparks will be unknown. 

" Peat-fuel, containing from twenty-five to thirty per 
cent, of water, may be burned in a locomotive with a 
blast, and arrangement of fire-box precisely the same as 
for wood, and used in the same way, with this differ- 
ence only, that with wood the fire-box is always kept 
full to the top, while with damp peat not more than six 
inches covering of the grate is necessary. In ascending 
long inclines, or with an overloaded engine, it may be 
necessary, perhaps, to increase the quantity to nine 
inches ; but under no circumstances has the writer 



HOW in DSB PEAT. 'I'll 

ever seen a twelve-inch covering to the fire-bars 
requisite. 

" When it is considered that in burning a ton of green 
peat, containing only fifteen per cent, of moisture in 
excess of ordinary air-dried peat, thirty-three gallons of 
water have to be dried out of it or evaporated during 
the combustion ; and, in addition, that the weight of 
solid matter in the ton of fuel is reduced fifteen per cent, 
by the water it contains, the difference of work performed 
by dry peat over that of wet is not so great as might 
be expected. This, however, may be accounted for by 
the little experience we have hitherto had w T ith the fuel, 
and also from the fact that locomotives have not been 
adapted to its use. 

" The amount of blast required for green peat is not 
so great as that required for wood ; but it burns well in 
a furnace arranged for consuming wood. 

" For dry peat, very little blast is required ; and when 
burning in engines adapted for wood, the fuel has to be 
applied in such small quantities that it is scarcely pos- 
sible to keep the fire-bars covered without raising more 
steam than is required. It therefore seems apparent 
that, although an approximate maximum of work may 
have been got out of green peat, the experiments with 
dry fuel need repeating many times to give any adequate 
idea of what it w 7 ill do in properly constructed furnaces, 
and with a suitable amount of blast." 

The strong exhaust in most of the locomotives at 
present in use is by no means needful or favorable for 
obtaining from this fuel its best service ; and there can 
be no doubt that in this respect a radical change will be 
found desirable as one of the essential features of a good 
peat burner. The area and depth of the fire-box, and 
the arrangement of the grate-bars, for both locomotive 



228 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

and stationary engines, are also likely to be modified to 
a considerable extent. 

"Chemical analysis shows that peat, weight for 
weight, contains only three fifths of the heating prop- 
erties of coal, and it is therefore the opinion of many 
that it is little more than half as valuable for raising 
steam. 

" Now this is all very well in the closet ; but as prac- 
tice shows that, even with the best constructed furnace 
thirteen per cent, only of the heat-giving properties of 
coal are utilized, there is still a pretty good margin for 
peat, and a possibility that, by being able to econ- 
omize a greater percentage of the heat-giving prop- 
erties it contains, to make it do double the work of 
coal. 

"It is true that Dr. "Whelpley, of Boston, by his 
wonderful pulverizer, reduces refuse coal to an impal- 
pable powder, and, by a peculiar mode of combustion, 
makes this dust do six times the work of the best coal, 
at a cost perfectly insignificant compared with the result. 
That he will succeed eventually in making a revolution 
in the use of fuel there can be no question ; but as peat- 
fuel can be reduced to dust as easily as coal, there is 
still a hope that peat-fuel may keep its position as the 
best fuel in the world." 

We cannot claim to be sufficiently well informed upon 
this very important part of our subject to undertake to 
give definite instructions applicable to all cases. Many 
useful hints bearing upon it have been given on preced- 
ing pages, and it must now await the result of experi- 
ment and investigation, which, with the "inventive 
genius and combining skill" already enlisted in this 
great enterprise, are sure to meet the requirements of 
the case. The field is a wide one. 



HOW TO USE PEAT. 229 

The following, which we cut from the "American 
Gas Light Journal," is pertinent in this connection, as 
relating to economy in the use of fuel. 

"Take as a period the last fifty years, and see what 
improvements have been made in this direction. While 
our forefathers were content to warm the humble cottage 
by the aid of the 'fire-place,' which occupied one side 
of the dwelling, whose capacious jambs required the 
immense 'back-log' and 'fore-stick,' and the various 
components to form the huge pile for a respectable fire, 
their children employed the j box ' and ' Franklin ' stoves, 
&c, which used both coal and wood, and were, scien- 
tifically, an improvement in the degree of radiation at- 
tained, and because they did not carry the most of the 
caloric up the chimney in the tempest. 

" From this we come to the more modern and scien- 
tific appliances for heating, cooking, &c, embracing 
heaters and registers, radiators, base-burners, smoke 
and gas-consumers, patent cooking-stoves, ranges, gal- 
leys, and numberless other inventions. So, also, in 
equal or greater degree, has there been improvements 
in the various processes of smelting, and in steam en- 
gines, both land and marine, by the aid of improved 
draft or blast, by return, horizontal, and inclined 
flues, patent jackets, grates, condensers, &c, to more 
completely consume the smoke and gases, to increase 
the radiating surfaces, and various other improvements, 
until, when we look back to the old methods, we smile 
at their primitiveness and inefficiency. 

" Science is progressive ; and the inquiring mind will 
ever be on the alert to improve the various appliances 
now in use, where coal or other fuel is employed, to 
more completely utilize and economize the caloric 
evolved during combustion, to devise more economy 



230 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

in mining, and to discover and apply substitutes for 
coal fuel. 

" It is safe to say that by modern improvements we 
get from one to two hundred per cent, more caloric, or 
work, — which is but another name for it, — from a 
given amount of fuel consumed, than we did fifty, or 
even twenty-five years ago ; and there is no reason to 
believe the inventive genius of the age will not improve 
upon the present methods of consuming fuel economi- 
cally, during the next hundred years, in a similar ratio 
at least." 

Gas from Peat. 

For gas, its properties have been tested in several 
places in this country, as also in Paris, Plymouth, Dart- 
moor Prison, Dublin, Munich, Kempton, and other 
places in Europe, with uniformly satisfactory results, 
but varying considerably, according to the character of 
the crude material. Its yield may be said to be about 
the same as the Newcastle coal ; but, in most cases, the 
light produced has been pronounced superior in bril- 
liancy and power. 

Gas of an excellent quality for lighting, and in large 
quantities, can be produced from some kinds of peat ; 
and in the ordinary progress of events must, we think, 
be extensively used, and that at no distant day. Nu- 
merous and very successful experiments in this direc- 
tion have been made, and results published from time 
to time. As long ago as 1683, J. J. Beecher published 
an account of his having produced gas from common 
coal in England, and from peat in Holland ; and, from 
that time to the present, abundant proof of its value and 
easy production has accumulated. 

For purposes of making and refining iron, the gas 



GAS FBOM TEAT. 231 

produced from peat 1ms been extensively used in France, 
Germany, Prussia, and Sweden. In many places in 
Europe it is used for both purposes, and its consumption 
i4 regularly augmenting. 

On Dartmoor, the peat is cut by the convicts from the 
prison, working in gangs ; and, after being dried, it is 
carefully stored in one of the old prisons. From this 
peat, by a most simple process, gas is made with which 
the prisons at Princetown are lighted. 

The illuminating power of this gas is very high. The 
charcoal left after the separation of the gas is used in the 
same establishment for fuel and for sanitary purposes, 
and the ashes eventually go to improve the cultivated 
lands of that bleak region. 

Attempts were made here many years since to distil 
the peat for naphtha, paraffine, &c. ; but the experi- 
ments not proving successful, the establishment was 
abandoned. 

An article in "Silliman's Journal," 1855, after re- 
marking upon discussions had in the city of Paris in 
connection with the renewal of the engagements of the 
city with the gas companies, goes on to say, "Attention 
has been called to the gas manufactured from peat, 
which for some time has been used in Paris. 

" M. Foucault has been charged with measuring the 
comparative illuminating power of coal and peat gas, 
and the result is in favor of that of peat, its power being 
three hundred and forty-two, while that of coal gas is 
one hundred. The manufacture of peat gas is also 
more simple than coal. The peat, if put into an iron 
retort, heated to a low red heat, affords immediately a 
mixture of permanent gases and vapors, which condense 
into an oleaginous liquid, which two products separate 
on cooling. The oil is collected in a special vessel, and 



232 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

the gas passes into a gasometer. This carburetted hy- 
drogen is wholly unfit for illumination, as it gives a very 
small flame, nearly like that from brandy. The oil from 
the peat is a viscous, blackish liquid, of a strong odor- 
It is subject to a new distillation, and resolved wholly 
into a permanent gas and hydrogen very richly carbu- 
retted. This mixture is strongly illuminating, giving 
a flame six or eight times brighter than the first, and of 
a more lively brilliancy. The two are mixed, and a gas 
of intermediate character obtained, which is delivered 
over for consumption. 

rf M. Foucault made his trials with a photometric 
method not then made public. Its unit was not a sin- 
gle wax candle, but a collection of seven candles, ar- 
ranged in a hexagonal manner, with spaces of one 
centimetre. A single candle is liable to too much vari- 
ation, a compensation for which is secured when a num- 
ber are employed. By this method a mean of five 
determinations gave for a burner of peat gas a light 
equivalent to twenty-three and one fourth candles, and 
the same burner, with coal gas, six and three tenths 
candles. 

" The illuminating power of the pure oil from peat, 
the illuminating material, par excellence, has been found 
at equal pressures, seven hundred and five, the intensity 
of coal gas being one hundred ; and, with equal vol- 
umes, their numbers are as seven hundred and fifty-six 
to one hundred." 

From the absence of sulphur in peat, the purification 
of this gas is much more easily accomplished than that 
from coal. 

Mr. Paul, to whom reference has before been made, 
stated before the Society of Arts, in 1862, that for 
a long time he had manufactured gas from peat to light 



GAS FROM TEAT. 233 

his works ; that the bituminous black peat of Scot- 
land produced gas of good illuminating power, which 
required no purifying process for ordinary purposes ; 
and he considered the applicability of peat for gas-mak- 
ing a matter well worthy of consideration. 

Mr. Keats, before the same society, said he had made 
experiments of a like character, and had obtained as 
much as ten thousand cubic feet of gas from a ton of 
peat ; but the percentage of carbonic acid was so great, 
in some cases amounting to twenty-two per cent., that 
it operated as a prohibition of the use of the gas until 
some cheap means for removing that difficulty should be 
found. 

Mr. Brunton stated that trials made with his prepared 
peat had shown not only that there was a large amount 
of gas in the peat, but that the gas was of such high 
illuminating power as to bear advantageous comparison 
with gas distilled from coal, while the difficulty of the 
carbonic acid gas was done away with, in a great meas- 
ure, by the partial charring or baking of the peat before 
it was used for the manufacture of gas. 

Mr. Versmann had conducted experiments, and came 
to the conclusion that this prepared peat was a most val- 
uable material for gas purposes, and that it would pro- 
duce from twelve thousand to fourteen thousand cubic 
feet of gas per ton, of an illuminating power exceeding 
that of ordinary coal gas, the amount of carbonic acid 
not exceeding ten per cent. ; and although that was 
somewhat in excess of the average of coal gas, yet there 
were advantages in peat which more than counterbal- 
anced the disadvantages arising from the excess of car- 
bonic acid. 

Professor Emmons, in his report on the Geology of 
New York, remarks upon peat, and says, "It contains 



234 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

a gaseous matter, equal in illuminating power to oil or 
coal gas." And again: "Peat furnishes an abun- 
dance of carburetted hydrogen, and hence may be 
employed for producing gas-light. 

" Dr. Lewis Feuchtwanger, of New York, has made 
known to the American public the experiments of 
Merle, a director of a gas-light company in France. 
The advantages of peat for the production of gas 
are as follows : 1st. It is less expensive than gas from 
coal, oil, or resin. 2d. The product is nearly as 
much as from those substances. 3d. The gas is quite 
harmless and inoffensive, and has, in respect to health- 
fulness, great advantages over some of the other kinds 
of gas. After it has been employed for gas the coke 
may be used for fuel, and is equal to any charcoal. 

"If the above details may be relied upon, and if the 
experiments of Merle are satisfactory, if peat can be 
employed to advantage in the production of gas, it be- 
comes one of the most important natural productions in 
the State, second only to coal for fuel, and equal to it 
for producing a beautiful and agreeable light. It would 
at once become a source of individual wealth, and fur- 
nish employment for a multitude of laborers, and in- 
crease the amount of transportation from the interior of 
the State to the cities and larger villages. It would 
employ a vast amount of material lying useless and un- 
productive, and one, too, embraced in our own territory. 
It would be using a great capital which has been accu- 
mulating for a long time, and has been reserved in store 
for this age of enterprise." j 

Dr. A. A. Hayes, of Boston, gives the following 
report of test, made by him, of peat sent to him from 
Wisconsin, as a material for the manufacture of illu-' 
minating gas : — 



GAS PROM PEAT. 235 

"The sample weighed eighteen pounds only, and was 
therefore used with other coal, substituting peat for a 
portion of the charge. One hundred and fifty pounds 
of coal make a charge for one retort. 

" One hundred and thirty-four pounds of Pictou coal 
and sixteen pounds of Wisconsin peat were taken, and 
afforded — 

Coke 101 lbs. 

Gas 620 cub. ft. 

Ammonia water and tar .... 

* The gas had, after perfect purification, a spec. grav. 
0.538, and measured 620 cubic feet. 100 parts con- 
tained olefiant gas 11.85. 5 cubic feet afforded as 
much light as 29 4.10 candles of standard spermaceti. 

"134 lbs. Pictou coal would have afforded 536 cubic 
feet of gas ; 5 feet being equal to 17 candles, or the 
whole to 1779 candles. 

"134 lbs. Pictou coal added to 16 lbs. Wisconsin 
peat afforded 620 cubic feet ; 5 feet being equal to 
29 4.10 candles, or the whole to 3645 candles. 

" There are only two or three cannel coals known 
which afford so much illuminating material, placing this 
peat in the first class of gas materials. 

"It exceeds all common cannels, and, of course, is 
far above any bituminous coal, and can be worked with 
poor coal to make good gas." 

At the Portland (Me.) Gas Works experiments were 
made, and the gas produced was used for lighting the 
city one or two evenings, with highly satisfactory 
results ; the light furnished being, as we understand, 
full as good, if not better, than the quality ordinari- 
ly furnished from the coals which it is their custom 
to use. 



236 



PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 



The results of four experiments may be briefly stated 
as follows, it being understood that a given quantity of 
Albert coal was used in the retorts with the peat, as it 
is their custom to use it with the poorer coals from 
which most of their supply is obtained : — 



1st. 



2d. 



3d. 



4th. 



720 lbs. Peat i 

100 " Albert l r ^°® e( l ua l to 28 candles. 







2d 


« 


1250 " ' 


( a 


19 


Li 






3d 


u 


160 " ' 


l u 


15 


a 


1080 
270 


a 
(( 


Peat > 
Albert } lst 


u 


3190 " ' 


i u 


27 


u 






2d 


u 


2000 " « 


i a 


18 


a 






3d 


a 


510 " ' 


i a 


10J 


a 


1080 
270 


U 

u 


Peat i 
Albert f lst 


a 


2910 " ' 


i a 


24 


a 






2d 


a 


1960 " ' 


l u 


20 


a 






3d 


u 


480 " < 


i a 


9 


a 


1080 
270 


u 


Peat | 
Albert f lst 


(I 


2830 " < 


i a 


25 


a 






2d 


u 


1810 " ' 


i u 


17 


a 






3d 


u 


350 " ' 


l cc 


7 


u 



A gentleman connected with one of the large manu- 
facturing establishments in Utica, N. Y., writes us as 
follows : "I have obtained from 160 lbs. of your con- 
densed peat 612 cubic feet of illuminating gas. Our 
retorts were not well adapted to give the article a 
thorough test, and therefore am unable to give you a 
statement of its comparative cost." 

Another correspondent writes, in Dec, 1865, "A 
piece of dried peat, containing less than six cubic 
inches, distilled in a small iron retort, with pipe-stem 
attached to the discharge pipe, furnished, for 33 minutes, 
a beautiful -jet of pure clear gas, inodorous without 
purification, the illuminating power of which appealed 



GAS FROM PEAT. 237 

(without actual test) to be greater than that we have 
from a single burner with ordinary gas." 

Experiments were recently made at the Lansingburg 
(N. Y.) Gas Works. The peat used was simply dried 
in the sun, without pressing, and was then placed in the 
retorts. The gas was pronounced to be in every way 
superior to that made from the best coal. It gave a 
whiter, clearer, and much stronger light than the gas 
ordinarily produced there from coal, and stood the 
chemical tests well. 

Professor Johnson, in his recent work, remarks, — 

"It is essential that well-dried peat be employed. 
The retorts must be of good conducting material, there- 
fore cast iron is better than clay. They are made of 
the ft form, and must be relatively larger than those 
used for coal. A retort of two feet width, one foot 
depth, and 8 to 9 feet length, must receive but 100 lbs. 
of peat at a charge. 

M The quantity of gas yielded in a given time is 
much greater than from bituminous coal. From retorts 
of the size just named 8000 to 9000 cubic feet of gas 
are delivered in 24 hours. The exit pipes must, there- 
fore, be large, not less than 5 to 6 inches, and the 
coolers must be much more effective than is needful 
for coal gas, in order to separate from it the tarry 
matters. 

" The number of retorts requisite to furnish a given, 
volume of gas is much less than in the manufacture 
from coal. On the other hand, the dimensions of the 
furnace are considerably greater, because the consump- 
tion of fuel must be more rapid, in order to supply 
the heat which is carried off by the copious formation 
of gas. 

"Gas may be made from peat at a comparatively 



238 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

low temperature, but its illuminating power is then 
trifling. At a red heat alone can we procure a gas of 
good quality. 

" The chief impurity of peat gas is carbonic acid : this 
amounts to 25 to 30 per cent, of the gas before purifica- 
tion, and if the peat be insufficiently dried, it is con- 
siderably more. The quantity of slaked lime that is 
consumed in purifying is therefore much greater than 
is needed for coal gas, and is an expensive item in the 
making of peat gas. 

"While wood gas is practically free from sulphur 
compounds and ammonia, peat gas may contain them 
both, especially the latter, in quantity that depends upon 
the composition of. the peat, which, as regards sulphur 
and nitrogen, is very variable. 

"Peat gas is denser than coal gas, and therefore can- 
not be burned to advantage except from considerably 
wider orifices than answer for the latter, and under 
slight pressure. 

"The above statements show the absurdity of judging 
of the value of peat as a source of gas by the results 
of trials made in gas works, arranged for bituminous 
coal. 

"As to the yield of gas we have the following data, 
weights and measures being English : — 

Cubic ft. 

X00 lbs. of peat of medium quality from Munich, gave Reissig . 303 

" air-dry peat from Biermoos, Salzburg, gave Riedixgeb 305 

" very light fibrous peat gave Reissig .... 379 to 430 

" Exter's machine-peat, from Haspelmoor, gave . . . 367 

" Thenius states that, to produce 1000 English cubic 
feet of purified peat gas, in the works at Kempten, 
Bavaria, there are required in the retorts 292 lbs. of 
peat. To distil this, 138J- lbs. of peat are consumed in 



PEAT IN GUNPOWDER AND FIREWORKS. 239 

the fire ; and to purify the gas from carbonic acid, 9l£ 
lbs. of lime are used. In the retorts remain 117 lbs. 
of peat coal, and nearly 6 lbs. of tar are collected in the 
operation, besides smaller quantities of acetic acid and 
ammonia. 

" According to Stammer, 4 cwt. of dry peat are re- 
quired for 1000 cubic feet of purified gas. 

" The quality of the gas is somewhat better than that 
made from bituminous coal." 

Quite a number of experiments have been made with 
peat during the past year, in this country, for the pur- 
pose of testing its value for the production of illuminat- 
ing gas ; but we are not possessed of sufficient data 
concerning them to give any thing like accurate or 
reliable reports. The opinion is, however, freely ex- 
pressed by those who have given most attention to it, 
that peat is destined at no distant day to be used very 
extensively for this purpose, both on account of the 
quality and quantity of the gas produced, and the low 
cost of the material, when compared with the coals at 
present most in use. 
• 
Peat in Gunpowder and Fireworks. 

For the production of gunpowder, many varieties of 
peat are superior to the charcoal of dogwood and 
alder. We have seen the black peat of Massachusetts 
so perfectly prepared and granulated, without any ex- 
plosive admixture, that it was impossible to distinguish 
it from the best rifle powder, even by a well-practised 
eye. 

In the manufacture of fireworks, also, it is reported 
to have been used with marked success, from the fact 
that combustion is even more instantaneous and perfect 



240 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

than from the materials ordinarily in use, and that the 
fires produced exceed in brilliancy any thing heretofore 
attained. 

Mr. J. B. Hyde, C E., states that, "It has long 
been used by pyrotechnists in Europe in the composi- 
tion of fireworks, particularly for colored fires, giving 
them greater brilliancy than could be effected by any 
other carbon. 

" The artificer of Vauxhall Gardens, London, who de- 
clares it to be twenty per cent, more combustible than 
any other charcoal, long retained the secret of the 
material used by himself, which gave his works a wide 
reputation for their superiority." 

Chemical Products from the Distillation of 
Peat. 

In 1849, public attention in England Was very much 
excited by an extraordinary statement made in the House 
of Commons by Mr. Mahon, and supported by Loril 
Ashley, asserting the immense area of bog in Ireland 
to contain substances of great economic value, to be 
produced at comparatively small cost. Lord Ashley's 
statements were based upon the authority of Mr. Owen, 
whose experiments went to show that, chemically treated 
at remunerative cost, the product would be the follow- 
ing substances : carbonate of ammonia, soda, vinegar, 
naphtha, paraffine, camphene oil, common oil, gas of 
value, and ashes. 

The publication of this remarkable statement was 
quickly followed by a letter in the "Times," from Mr. 
Henry Seaman, of Plymouth, asserting that he and his 
neighbors lost £20,000 in an attempt to turn the peat- 
bogs of Dartmoor to profitable account, in the same 



CHEMICAL PRODUCTS FROM TEAT. 241 

manner as the peat of Ireland had been treated by Mr. 
Owen and his partner. 

This letter was followed by one from Mr. Robert 
Oxland, a practical chemist, residing at Plymouth, who 
rather confirmed the principal parts of the statement 
made by Lord Ashley. 

Subsequently the whole matter w r as taken up and 
thoroughly dissected in an article in the "Illustrated 
London News," No. 384, from which we quote a single 
paragraph : " Xo doubt a fair marketable value is taken 
for the several items ; but we believe, and we express 
this most conscientiously, that the cost of production 
would exceed their commercial worth." 

Again : in November, 1850, in the "Times," is found 
the following statement : " It now appears that Mr. 
Owen, whose course, from the first, was in no way 
inconsistent with Lord Ashley's testimony respecting 
him, has been, for the past year and a half, quietly 
engaged in testing the merits of the process to an ex- 
tent that would properly authorize a definitive estimate 
of its results. These labors have been carried on partly 
under the superintendence of Dr. Hodges, the Professor 
of Agriculture in Queen's College, Belfast, and partly 
in the neighborhood of London, at the premises of 
Messrs. Coffey & Sons, engineers ; and the conclusions 
now represented to have been arrived at, are of an ex- 
ceedingly satisfactory nature." They do not promise the 
five hundred per cent, originally talked of, but accord- 
ing to a certified estimate rendered by Messrs Coffey & 
Sons, they show a profit of upwards of one hundred 
per cent. 

"This estimate, which is framed for an establishment 
consuming 36,500 tons of peat per annum, is as fol- 
lows : — 

16 



242 PEAT AS AX ABTICLE OF FUEL. 



Expenditures. 

"36,500 tons of peat, at 2s. per ton £3650 

455 " sulphuric acid, at £7 . . . . 3185 

TTear and tear of apparatus, &c 700 

Wages, labor, &c 2000 

Cost of sending to market, and incidentals . . 2182 

Profit 11,908 

£23,625 

Produce. 

365 tons sulphate of ammonia, at £12 . . £4380 

255 " acetate of lime, at £14 .... 3570 

19.000 gallons naphtha, at 5s 4750 

109,500 lbs. paramne, at Is 5475 

73,000 gallons volatile oil, at Is 3650 

36,000 " fixed oil, at Is 1800 

£23,625" 

After referring again to the experience of Sir Robert 
Kane, as given in his "Industrial Resources of Ireland," 
and the experiments made by the Dartmoor Company 
on a large scale, the "Times" says, K We wish these 
results may be realized ; but we have no hope of any 
thing so satisfactory." 

Professor Brande read before the Royal Institution, 
in 1851, a paper upon peat and its products. 

Special mention was made of the " tallow-peat " of 
the banks of Lough Neagh, which, from the brilliant 
flame attending its combustion, has been used for illumi- 
nating purposes as well as for fuel. 

He says, "Peat maybe rendered valuable either from 
the charcoal which may be obtained from it, or by vari- 
ous products derivable from what is called its destruc- 
tive distillation. 



CHEMICAL PRODUCTS FBOM TEAT. 243 

"When it is desii id to convert pent into charcoal, the 
plan adopted by the Irish Amelioration Society is to 
carbonize blocks of peat, partially dried on trays of 
wicker-work, in movable pyramidal furnaces. The 
charcoal so obtained varies in character with that of the 
peat which produces it ; and, when the peat is com- 
pressed previous to its carbonization, the resulting char- 
coal exceeds the density of common wood charcoal. 

" The efficacy of this charcoal in the manufacture of 
iron, in consequence of the small quantity of sulphur 
it contains, was mentioned, and its deodorizing and 
purifying qualities experimentally exhibited. 

" The elements of peat are essentially those of wood 
and coal; viz., carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and 
oxygen." 

In conclusion, Professor Brande reviewed the various 
products of peat derived by distillation, and their uses. 
They appear to be, — 

1 . Sulphate of ammonia. This substance is emntoyed in 
the preparation of carbonate and muriate of ammonia, of 
caustic ammonia, and in the manufacture of fertilizing com- 
posts. 

2. Acetate of lime, which is in constant demand as a source 
of acetic acid, and of various acetates largely consumed by 
calico printers. 

3. Pyroxylic spirit (or wood alcohol), used in vapor-lamps, 
affording a brilliant light, and for the preparation of var- 
nishes. 

4. Naphtha, used for making varnishes, and for dissolving 
caoutchouc. 

5. Heavy and fixed oils, applicable for lubricating machi- 
nery, especially when blended with other unctuous substance, 
or as a cheap lamp-oil, and as a source of lampblack. 

6. Paraffine. This article is largely used for the manufac- 
ture of candles. 



244 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

An article in the ''Annual of Scientific Discovery," 
for 1851, relating to improvements in treating peat in 
England, says, ' f In addition to gas and ammonia, there 
is also obtained from the distillation of peat a peculiar 
acid, and a bitumino-adipose compound, which is called 
f paranaphthadipose.' One of the products of this is a 
good solvent of gutta-percha, caoutchouc," &c. 

The crude residues from the rectification of the oils 
of peat and bitumen, if burned in proper apparatus, 
furnish abundance of lampblack. 

A writer in the "London Journal of Arts," for De- 
cember, 1855, states that the peat-charcoal which is left 
in the retorts, after all the volatile constituents of peat 
have been distilled away, possesses the property of de- 
priving colored vegetable solutions of the whole of their 
coloring matters. He adds that twenty-five per cent. 
more of this charcoal is needed than of bone-black ; 
but the latter is about six times as expensive. Before 
using the peat-charcoal, it must be purified from iron, 
and sulfate of lime, and all alkaline matters. 

In 1854 a company was formed, called the Irish Peat 
Company, having a factory near Athy, in Kildare, Ire- 
land ; its purpose being to produce, from peat, tar, 
parafrme, oil, naphtha, sulphate of ammonia, and to 
manufacture iron, the furnaces being heated with the 
gas manufactured or produced from the peat. It was 
under the general management and superintendence of 
Dr. Sullivan. The peat was distilled in furnaces, like the 
ordinary blast furnaces, thirty-two feet seven inches high, 
made perfectly tight by being incased in boiler plate iron, 
and covered at the top with a close conical valve and a 
double hopper. Air was blown in, in limited quantity, 
t through three tuyeres at the base. The volatile products 
were taken off at the top by two twelve-inch pipes, and 



CHEMICAL PRODUCTS FROM PEAT. 245 

conveyed into an hydraulic main three feet in diameter, 
from which the tar and other liquids flow into a tank, and 
the gases and vapors through series of condensing and 
purifying pipes and other apparatus, in which their sep- 
aration is effectually completed. The charcoal is entirely 
consumed in the furnace. Various experiments gave 
great encouragement to the company, and the projectors, 
who were men of considerable standing and eminence, 
were sanguine of success. They started their works, 
however, at immense cost, and with the intention of pro- 
ducing everything from peat, in paying quantities, and 
consequently failed. It was well known, moreover, that 
the original outlay for building, machinery, &c, was 
'enormous (something like $300,000), and the peat op- 
erated upon was of an inferior quality : the result of the 
enterprise, therefore, is no criterion for the commercial 
results of a prudently managed establishment. 

Probably one of the reasons why several of the peat 
enterprises which have been started have met with so 
little real success has been that they wanted to do too 
much. 

If people will undertake to obtain in one establish- 
ment all the products capable of being derived from peat, 
the probabilities are that they will fail of profit, and 
make a loss ; but an establishment devoted exclusively 
to the preparation of peat as fuel, leaving others to char 
or distil it, will probably succeed commercially. 

Mr. B. H. Paul read to the British Association, in 
1863, a paper "On the Manufacture of Hydro-carbon 
Oils, Paraffine, &c, from Peat." 

The author described the results which had been ob- 
tained at some works erected under his direction at 
Stornway, on the Island of Lewes. 

The peat of that locality was described as a peculiarly 



246 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

rich bituminous variety of mountain peat, yielding from 
five to ten gallons of refined oils and paraffine from the 
ton. The results obtained at these works were con- 
trasted with those obtained at the works of the Irish 
Peat Company, where the product of oil was not more 
than two gallons per ton. This difference in the prod- 
uce was ascribed, in a great degree, to the improper 
mode of working adopted at the Irish works. 

One of the most important points dwelt upon was the 
necessity of regarding the hydro-carbon oils and the 
paraffine as the only products that would afford a profit in 
the distillation of peat. Dr. Paul concluded his paper 
by expressing his opinion that, though the working of 
peat was surrounded by many serious difficulties, ther£ 
was every reason to believe that such peat as that oc- 
curring in the Highlands of Scotland could be advan- 
tageously worked ; and that, if the manufacture of oils 
were undertaken with earnestness and perseverance, it 
would become the means of greatly improving the con- 
dition of those parts of the country, and a fertile source 
of profit. 

In a recent conversation with a gentleman of this city, 
a native of Germany, he gave a very interesting account 
of a large peat establishment near his father's residence, 
"as large," he remarked, "as Chickering's Factory," 
where the products above mentioned are produced on an 
extensive scale, yielding, according to his statements, 
large profits to the proprietors of the works. He men- 
tions also another production realized at these works, of 
which we have nowhere seen mention in connection with 
peat. We allude to aniline colors, which he states are 
there produced from peat, though in very small quanti- 
ties ; but, owing to their exceeding richness and strength, 
are sold " so many drops, so many dollars," which, being 



ANALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT. 247 

interpreted, means one dollar per drop. The finest 
candles used in the Catholic service in that country are 
manufactured from paraffine extracted from peat. 

Analyses and Properties of Peat. 

The ultimate elements of peat are essentially those of 
wood and coal; viz., carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and 
nitrogen. If, therefore, peat be distilled in close ves- 
sels, the resulting products must be those of a similar 
operation on coal or wood. 

In this way, as stated in the preceding chapter, it has 
been made to yield ammonia, acetic acid, pyroxylic spirit, 
tar, naphtha, oils, and paraffine, — all of great value in 
the useful arts. 

Reports of analyses of peats are somewhat numerous, 
though in our own country but few have thus far ap- 
peared. 

Peat always contains earthy matter to some extent, 
according to its position, thickness of stratum, &c, 
though sometimes in quantities so minute as to be ac- 
counted for only by the accumulations from the minute 
dust of the air. In other cases the situation is such that 
large amounts of earth are occasionally washed in from 
surrounding hills or blown in from more exposed loca- 
tions. In this respect, therefore, certain deposits of 
peat may differ materially from wood. AVhen the peat 
is consumed, these substances are left in the form of 
ash, and according to the nature of the ingredients of 
which it is composed, the ash is found to differ in color 
from white to gray and ochrey red. 

Professor Johnson, who has devoted a good deal 
of personal attention to the matter in connection with 
agricultural interests, made report, in 1858, of results 



248 



PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 



obtained by him from upwards of thirty specimens pro- 
cured from various parts of the State of Connecticut. 
The following brief resume of his more elaborate report 
will serve to show something of the great variety of 
composition of this material : — 





Organic 
Matter. 


Inorganic 
Matter. 




Organic 
Matter. 


Inorganic 
Matter. 


1. 


60 


40 


17. 


70 


30 


2. 


90 


10 


18. 


35 


65 


3. 


95 


5 


19. 


23 


77 


4. 


96 


4 


20. 


32 


68 


5. 


98 


2 


21. 


60 


40 


6. 


64 


36 


22. 


26 


74 


7. 


83 


17 


23. 


25 


75 


8. 


59 


41 


24. 


28 


72 


9. 


86 


14 


25. 


92 


8 


10. 


82 


18 


26. 


97 


3 


11. 


47 


53 


27. 


84 


16 


12. 


93 


7 


28. 


90 


10 


13. 


90 


10 


29. 


68 


32 


14. 


91 


9 


30. 


88 


12 


15. 


90 


10 


31. 


73 


27 


16. 


26 


74 


32. 


76 


24 



Analyses of four samples of peat from Virginia, as 
conducted by him in November, 1866, are reported as 

follows : — 





i. 


n. 


in. 


rv. 


Water . . . 


20.00 


20.00 


Dry. 


Dry. 


Volatile matter 


50.05 


52.59 


62.56 


65.74 


Coke . . . . 


24.97 


25.44 


31.21 


31.81 


Ash ... . 


4.98 


1.97 


6.23 


2.45 



100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 



Four samples from the Great Dismal Swamp, ana- 
lyzed in January, 1867, by Prof. B. Silliman, yielded as 
follows : — 



ANALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT. 



249 





i. 


ii. 


in. 


IV. 


Water . . . 


78.89 


20.22 


Dry. 


10.00 


Volatile matter 


13.84 


52.31 


65.53 


58.08 


Charcoal . . . 


6.49 


24.52 


30.82 


28.59 


Ash .... 


.78 


2.95 


3.65 


3.33 



100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 

The following analyses by Regnault and Mulder show 
the contents of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen: — 

Locality. 



Vulcaire . . 


■1 


Long . . 


•1 


Champ de Feu 


1 


Freisland 




Holland . . - 





Carbon. 

59.57 


Hydrogen. 

5.96 


Oxygen. 

34.47 


Regnault 


60.40 


5.86 


33.64 


Mulder. 


60.06 


6.21 


33.73 


Regnault. 


60.89 


6.21 


32.90 


Mulder. 


60.21 


6.45 


33.34 


Regnault 


61.05 


6.45 


32.50 


Mulder. 


59.42 


5.87 


34.71 


u 


60.41 


5.87 


34.02 


a 


59.27 


5.41 


35.35 


u 



The fact that a greater or less quantity of nitrogen is 
invariably contained in peat, appears to have been en- 
tirely overlooked in this case. 

The " Dublin Journal of Industrial Progress " pub- 
lished an account of the results of analyses conducted by 
Drs. Kane and Sullivan, from which the following are 
selected, as indicating, apparently with great accuracy, 
the contents of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. 





Carbon. 


Hydrogen. 


Ox.ygcn. 


Nitrogen. 


Surface Peat, Phillipstown . . 


58.094 


6.971 


32.883 


1.4514 


Dense Peat " . . 


60.476 


6.097 


32.516 


.8806 


Surface Peat, Bog of Allen . 


59.920 


6.GH 


32.207 


1.2588 


Dense Peat " " . . 


61.022 


5.771 


32.400 


.8070 


Surface Peat, T\vicknevin . . 


60.102 


6.723 


31.288 


1.8866 


Surface Peat, Shannon .... 


60.018 


5.875 


3:3.152 


.9545 


Dense Peat " ... 


61.247 


5.616 


31.446 


1.6904 



250 



PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 



It should be observed that previous to analyses these 
samples were dried at a temperature of 220° Fahrenheit, 

Further analyses, referring to the same subject, con- 
ducted by Kane, Eonalds, and \Yoskressensky, are given 
by Aluspratt, as follows : — , 





Carbon. 


Hydrogen. 


Oxygen. 


Nitrogen. 


Peat from VTestrneath . 


61.010 


6.670 


30.170 




" « Clare .... 


56.630 


6.330 


34. ISO 




" " Kildare . . . 


51.050 


6.850 


39.550 




" " Tuam. . . . 


57.207 


5.655 


28.919 


3.067 


CC CC it 


58.306 


5.821 


29.669 


2.509 


a c< 


59.552 


5.502 


28.111 


1.715 


" " East'nEussia 


39.084 


8.788 


51.088 





The following table of analyses of peat, both in the 
raw and carbonized state, from various localities, is 
found in Taylor's " Statistics of Coal : "— 



By whom analyzed. 




Vaporteablo 
Matter. 
per cent. 


Cinder, 
per cent. 


Locality and Description. 


David Mushet, Esq. 


25.20 


72.60 


2.20 Scotch Peat. raw. 


Dr. Kane 


61.01 


37.53 


1.83 ; Bog of Allen. Ireland. 


M. Marcher .... 


( 65.00 
I 37.00 


22.00 


13.00 | Carbonized Peat. 


48.00 


15.00 


Pi aw Peat. 


M. Debette 


1 67.00 


30.00 


3.00 


Bobernia. carbonized. 


M. Bertbier .... 


C 38.40 


28.00 


17.10 


Carbonized. 


I 24.40 


70.60 


5.00 


TTurtemberg. raw. 


Dr. C. T. Jackson . 


21.00 


72.00 


7.00 


Maine. U. $.. raw. 


M. Savage 


22.00 




8.30 


Ardennes, France, raw. 


M. Diday 


9.00 




33.00 


Basse Alps. " " 



From numerous analyses of dried peat, by Regnault, 
Mulder, Kane, Sullivan, Ronalds, and others, the aver- 
age of results mav be stated to be about as follows : — 



ANALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT. 



251 



Carbon . . 


. . 61.247 


Min. 

51.05 


Average. 
60 


Hydrogen . 
Oxygen . 
Nitrogen . 


. . 6.971 
. . 35.35 
. 3.067 


5.41 

30.47 
0.8070 


6 
33 
1 = 100 



Comparing these numbers with those afforded by dry 
wood, it would appear that an excess* of ten per cent, 
of carbon and two per cent, of hydrogen is contained 
in the peat, over the quantity of these elements which 
wood ordinarily affords. This difference may have arisen 
from the decomposition which the matter of the peat 
has undergone. 

" In general," says Sir Humphrey Davy, K one hun- 
dred parts of dry peat contain from sixty to ninety-nine 
parts of matter destructible by fire, and the residuum 
consists of earths, together with oxide of iron." 

The following, which comprises a considerable variety, 
will indicate the -percentage of ash remaining after peat 
is burned. 









Ash. Observer. 


Black firm peat 


from Neumunster 


2.2 Suersen. 


(C U (C 


u 


Sindelfmgen . 


7.2 Schubler. 


Brown peat . 


(( 


Schwenningen . 


2.3 " 


Old peat . . 


t< 


Vulcare . 


5.58 Regnault. 


M it 


cc 


Long . 


4.61 


Peat . . 


u 


Champ de Feu 


5.35 " 


k 


u 


Berlin . . 


9.30 Achard. 


CC 


a 


u 


10.20 " 


a 


« 


l< 


11.20 


Black old peat 


u 


Maglin . . . 


14.40 Eirchof. 


Brown young pe 


at" 




14.30 


Peat . . 


u 


Eichfield . . 


21.50 Buchholz. 


c« 


(( 


u 


23.— 


M 


u 


(i 


30.50 


u 


u 


u 


33.— 


Grass peat, ligh 


t brown . . . 


1.5 Karmarsh. 


Pitch peat . 






8.— 



252 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Young peat, dark brown . . . 7. — Karmarsh. 

Old peat 10.— " 

41 kinds from Erzgeberge 1. (a) 24. "Winkler. 

3 " " Holl.&Fries.4.61 fa) 5.580 Mulder. 

27 " « Bogof Allen 1.120^a) 7.898 Kane & Sullivan. 

3 " " Tuam 3.695 (a) 4.819 Ronalds 

9 " " Saxony 5.300 fa) 3.710 Wellner. 

From this it will be seen that while some of these 
varieties are remarkably pure, in others no less than one 
third of the entire weight consists of incombustible sub- 
stances, which, it is evident, is quite too large a quantity 
to admit of their being used as fuel. Such varieties 
are, however, valuable as manures, owing to the fact 
that they contain a large amount of phosphates and other 
salts, which serve to enrich the soil. 

A knowledge of the composition of peat-ashes is of 
importance in determining their value for agricultural 
purposes, which is the use to which they are at present 
mainly applied, so far as we know, although it cannot 
be doubted that they possess a value for other purposes 
beyond what has thus far been developed. 

Professors Kane and Sullivan, before referred to, are 
our authority for the analyses of nearly thirty specimens 
of ash, from which we take the following at random, as 
sufficient to illustrate the variety of their composition : — 



ANALYSES AXD TROrERTIES OF PEAT. 



253 





- 


K O O -* b- 


h S O N CO CO 


CO 


O Ci 


o 




1 CO CO ^ CO 


CM Ci Ci UO CM O 


o 


t^ o 


c 


5 CM i-i »> CM 


© t~ CM 00 i-H © 


1— 1 


UO | CO 


1— 1 


C 


> 6 « do 


CN ci H O CO CO 


CO 


a 


"i Ci 










oo 




1— 1 


CM 






Ci 




i- 


5 — I O b- CO 


CO —1 00 CO b- 00 


CO 


c 


5 O 






J 0> *- CO B3. 


00 00 CO t- -* -* 


CO 


— 


h< CM 


» 


E 


5 t^ O O O 


O CM t)( O N ft 


CO 


c< 


■J ft 




C 


3 d i- 


■< CO b- 


rl CO H O H CM 


t^ 


C( 


i> d 










CO 




I— 1 


CM 






o 




c 


> O O CM CM 


lO N S <* O CO 


00 




oo 




a 


) "* cr Ci o 


O UO UO t~ Ci b- 


Ci 




CM 


00 


s 


1 <-H rj* -* t- 


b 


- O UO Ci ft -* 


ft 




Ci 




r 


5 d 6 oo ti* 


O O H CO O CM 


r-5 




00 














I— 1 1—f 


T— 1 T—l 


CO 




■ Ci 






) S CO N « 


-* O b- UO -* ■* 


CM 




-1 O 




a 


O CM O O 


CO -*> * t- CM CO 


CO 


s 


-i o 


t> 


-« 


C » C5 « 


o © -* co rh co 


co 


t 


o 


c 


i- 


1 CM O MO 


ti N H CO H d 


d 


cs 


5 d 










CM i- 






CM 


T— 1 




o 




























1-1 




X 


> ^ ■* CO M 


H X •* CO (M b- 


o 


,. 


H ■* 




'- 


) -* O CM O 


t~ CC i- 


I O UO .-H 


1—1 


a 


3 «* 


CD 


c 


> t- t- cc :: 


O CO ^H CM O CO 


t- 


c 


i 00 






5 odd-* 


t-4 O i-H "* ft d 


CO 


— 


n d 










"■* 




I— 1 


CM 






Ci 




- 


1 t> O H o 


ca ^ oo h b- co 


CO 


c 


5 00 




a 


) ■* t- oo uo 


N N X t> CO -* 


UO 


B 


1 b- 


lO 


C 


CO O O CM 




h Ci i— i CO CO o 


CO 


I- 


H CO 




c 


> d d o r-5 


© u- 


CM 


« 


5 d 










-<* 




1-1 


-# 






h Ci 




-4 


H lO ft O 


O LO O H H t- 


UO 


c 


> CO 






-* b- o o 


O •* H CO CO CO 


o 


t- 


Ci 




-4 


O 00 b- 00 


i-H 00 © CO O b- 


UO 


t( 


j CO 


c 


d r-5 cm d 


i-h d cm d t-h d 


-* 


r. 


5 d 








" 


CM 




CM 


I— 1 


1—1 




Ci 




er 


h ci o tn 


CO Ci O t^ CO r-l 


t- 


c 


3 b- 






CO Ci CM H 


Ci CO O O CO ft 


o 


r 


■< o 


CO 


CC 


* CO Ci O 


t> ci n-j »o os ft 


ft 


c 


> CO 




^ 


O r-5 O r-5 


CO U5 H ■* d i-5 


CM 


u- 


i d 










* 




I— 1 


1-1 






^ Ci 




»C 


CO <M CO -*• 


ft CO ft CM CM »0 


00 




H CO 




c 


CM O Ci CO 


H O t- Ci 00 Ci 


o 


■_' 


> -* 


N 


--* 


CO Ci -* CO 


«* co i© o -* uo 


i-H 


t- 


: R 


c 


T- 


t-H CO b> 


lo o oi ■* h co 


CM 


t> 


'• d 










CO 




I-H . 


1—1 






o 




























1-H 




t> 


?1 N « N 


O ft r-t CO CO © 


Ci 


u- 


J --H 




c- 


CO 0t H O) 


00 o o o <o 00 




c 


3 Ci 


rH 


B 


CO -* i-H CO 


f t o -* 


* UO Ci 


UO 


cc 


> CO 




c 


6 H CC 


CO 


tj! h h eq h 


CM 


a 


) d 










CM 




'- 1 


^ 


CM 




t Ci 






















s • 

O . 

o 


s . 

o 
o 

« ■ 

3 . 






> 












c 
•- 


■r 




2 3^ 


5R » 
ea "3 


4 


• 


> 

e 


! 










c 
d 


'I 


< 

c 


loric A 
e by A 


1 ^ 

■-0 ro 


< 


3 

> o 


c 
I 


> 
> 

s 








z 


"5 
c 




'S 


lroch 

ca in 


■a s 


c 

'E 

c 


: & 




^ 




- 






c 


^ 




C p^ 






V. 


- 




1 H 


1 < 


5 


s 


■J 




DQ 







254 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

As to the chemical products of peat, a series of ex- 
periments was instituted in the laboratories of the 
Museum of Irish Industry, under the superintendence 
of Sir Robert Kane and Professor Sullivan. 

These were conducted upon specimens of peat, from 
various peat deposits in Ireland, in a two-fold man- 
ner. 

First, by distilling the peat in close vessels, and 
secondly, by effecting the distillation by a combustion 
of a part of the material with a blast of air. 

In operating by the former method, a retort was used 
similar to that employed in the distillation of coal in the 
manufacture of gas. To the exit pipe from this retort, 
a series of Woulfe's bottles were adapted, wherein the 
greater portion of the tar and other aqueous products 
were deposited, the remainder being condensed in a 
worm fixed in a barrel of water, and the plhnanent 
gases collected. In each trial one hundred pounds of 
wet peat was worked off in eight to fourteen charges, 
according to the density of the substance. 

The following table represents the quantity of the 
gross products obtained as the result of seven experi- 
ments : — 

Water. Tar. Charcoal. Gas. 

1 23.600 2.000 37.500 36.900 

2 32.273 3.577 39.132 25.018 

3 38.102 2.767 32.642 26.489 

4 38.628 2.916 31.110 32.346 

5 32.098 2.344 23.437 42.121 

6 38.127 4.417 21.873 35.693 

7. . . . . 21.189 1.462 18.973 57.746 

Average . . 31.378 2.787 29.222 36.616 

The amount of ammonia, acetic acid, and naphtha 
contained in the aqueous product was next determined, 



ANALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT. 



255 



as well as that of the oil and paraffine in the tar, and 
the following table contains the results obtained : — 





Ammonia. 


Acetic 

Acid. 


Pyroxylic 

Spirit, 

or Naphtha 


Paraffine. 


Volatile 
Oil. 


Fixed Oil. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5. . # . . . 

6. . . . . 
7 


0.302 
0.187 
0.393 
0.210 
0.195 
0.404 
0.181 


0.076 
0.206 
0.2S6 
0.196 
0.208 
0.205 
0.161 


0.092 
0.171 
0.197 
0.147 
0.161 
0.132 
0.119 


0.024 
0.179 
0.075 
0.170 
0.196 
0.181 
0.112 


0.684 
0.721 
0.571 
1.262 
0.816 
0.829 
0.647 


0.469 
0.760 
0.565 
0.617 
0.493 
0.680 
0.266 


Average. . 


0.268 


0.191 


0.146 


0.134 


0.790 


0.550 



In the second series of experiments in which the peat 
was consumed by igniting it, and then supporting the 
combustion by a blast, the following results were obtained 
from the same peats used in the former experiments, 
selecting from them those kinds which had shown the 
greatest dissimilarity. 



^ 


Water. 


Tar. 


Ash. 


Gases. 


1. . 


. . 31.678 


2.510 


2.493 


63.319 


2. . 


. . 30.663 


2.395 


7.226 


59.716 


3. . 


. . 29.818 


2.270 


2.871 


65.041 



Average . 30.720 



2.392 



4.197 



62.692 



The amount of ammonia, acetic acid, naphtha, pa- 
raffine, and oils, obtained in the same way, were as 
follows : — 



Ammonia. Acetic Acid. Naphtha. Paraffine. Oils. 



0.322 
0.344 
0.194 



0.179 
0.268 
0.174 



0.158 
0.156 
0.106 



0.169 
0.086 
0.119 



1.220 
0.946 
1.012 



Average 0.287 0.207 0.140 0.125 1.059 



256 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

The average results of both methods of operation 
gave for the distillation in close vessels, — 

Maximum. Minimum. Average. 

Aqueous products . . 31.678 29.818 30.614 

Tar 2.510 2.270 2.392 

Ashes 7.226 2.493 4.197 

Gases 65.041 59.716 62.392 

The watery products and tar afforded, were, — 

Maximum. Minimum. Average. 

Ammonia .... 0.344 0.194 0.287 

or as 

Sulph. of Ammonia . 1.330 0.745 1.110 
Acetic Acid . . . 0.268 0.174 0.207 

or as 

Acetate of Lime . . 0.393 0.256 0.305 

Naphtha .... 0.158 0.106 0.140 

Paraffine .... 0.169 0.086 0.125 

Volatile and Fixed Oils 1.220 0.946 1.059 

The relative value of the two methods is as follows : — 

Average product Average product 
from close dis- from distillation 
tillation. in blast of air. 

Ammonia 0.268 Q.287 

or as 

Sulph. of Ammonia . . . .1.037 1.110 

Acetic Acid 0.191 0.207 

or as 

Acetate of Lime 0.280 0.305 

Naphtha 0.146 0.140 

Paraffine 0.134 0.125 

Oils 1.340 1.340 

The similarity of these numbers shows that very little 
difference exists between the results obtained from the 
distillation of the substance in close vessels, and from 
its decomposition in the fire by a blast of air. In the 
first case, however, there remains an average of twenty- 
nine parts of charcoal, which might determine a pref- 
erence for that method were it not that the greater part 



ANALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT. 



257 



of this is consumed in carbonizing the matter in the 
retort. 

A similar and independent series of experiments was 
conducted by Dr. Hodges, whose results, as contrasted 
with those arrived at by Professors Kane and Sullivan, 
we are enabled to give in connection with the statement 
of products anticipated by the Irish Peat Company, be- 
fore alluded to, and which formed the basis of their 
operations and calculations of gain. 



Sulph. Ammo 

Acetic Acid 

or as 

Acetate of Lime .... 

Naphtha 

Tar 

Products of ) Paraffine 
the Tar. S Oils . . . 



Kaxte abd 

SCLLIYA>\ 



1.110 
0.207 



0.305 
0.140 
2.392 
0.125 
1.059 



Per ton. 



24 T \lbs. 



Per ct. Per ton. 



1.000 



4flbs. 0.328 



53| lbs. 
2f lbs. 

2|gals. 



0.232 
4.440 



22| lb. 

7ilb. 



83loz. 
9911b. 



Ikish Peat Co. 
Pbospectxs. 



Per ct. Per ton. 



1.000 22f lb. 



0.700 15 T V lb. 
0.185 66^ oz. 



0.104 
0.071 



3 lb. 
2£ gal. 



These . results show a good degreee of similarity, 
especially when it is considered that there was a very 
considerable variety in the quality and characteristics 
of the samples experimented upon. 

The heating power of peat turf, dried but not con- 
densed, and peat charcoal, as estimated with reference 
to the heating power of carbon, which is taken as unity, 
is thus stated in " Scheerer's Metallurgie " : — 



Imperfectly air-dried turf, with 30 per cent, of ) 
hygroscopic moisture aud 10 per cent, of ash, \ 

Best air-dried turf, with 25 per cent, of moisture \ 

> 47 
and no ash, ) 

Kiln-dried turf, with no moisture and 15 per i 

. « , > 0.55 

cent, oi ash, J 

17 



258 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Best kiln-dried turf, without moisture or ash, . . 0.65 
Poorest kind of air-dried peat charcoal, with 10 

per cent, moisture and 56 per cent, ash, 
Best air-dried peat charcoal, with 10 per cent. 

moisture and 4 per cent ash, .... 



| 0.85 



With a view to ascertain its relative calorific power, 
Mr. 0. Cowper, of London, experimented by the 
"litharge test," recommended by Berthier, upon peat 
from the Bog of Allen. This test consists in mixing a 
given weight of fuel with a sufficient quantity of litharge, 
and heating it in a crucible : the heating power is in 
proportion to the quantity of lead reduced. By his 
experiments, the following comparative results w r ere 
obtained, being averages of six or eight experiments 
each : — 

10 grains of good Newcastle coal gave . . 284 grains. 

10 " " oven coke gave 302 " 

10 " " common peat (unmanufac- i 
tured) gave ) 

10 " " same, coked in a crucible, gave . 259 " 

The foregoing comparison is founded upon a well- 
known fact, that the quantity of heat generated during the 
combustion of any fuel is in exact relation to the quanti- 
ty of oxygen consumed in the process. Hence, in order 
to ascertain the relative calorific power of different kinds 
of fuel, it is only necessary to ascertain the quantity of 
oxygen which each consumes in burning. 

These experiments show that seven tons of coke from 
crude unmanufactured peat were equal to six tons of 
good coal coke ; but the real value of the experiments 
and their results are very much lessened from the fact 
stated, and for which no reason is given, that the peat 
used was "of an inferior quality." 



ANALYSES AND PROPERTIES OF PEAT. 259 

Professor Everitt conducted similar experiments, with 
results as follows : — 

10 grains peat coke, picked surface, gave . 277 grains. 
10 " " " lower strata, gave . . 250 " 
10 " pressed peat gave 137 " 

Investigations conducted by Berthier, Griffiths, and 
Winkler, upon the same principle, are reported as 
follows : — 

Pounds of lead Pounds of water 
reduced by heated from 
one lb. peat. 32° to 212° by 
one lb. peat. 

Peat from Troyer 8.0 18.1 Berthier. 

" " Ham 12.3 27.9 " 

" " Passy 13.0 29.2 " 

" " Framont .... 15.4 34.9 " 



u 



" " Ischoux 15.3 34.6 

" " Konigsbrunn . . . 14.3 32.4 " 

" " Bog of Allen . . . 27.7 62.7 Griffiths. 



25.0 56.6 



" " among 24 kinds from 



Hartz Mountain, V 11.9 26.9 Winkler, 
the worst gave . ) 

" " the best gave . . . 18.8 42.6 " 

Peat charcoal from Seine . . .17.7 40.1 Berthier. 

" " " Ham . . . 18.4 41.7 " 

" " " Essone . . 22.4 50.7 " 

" " " Framont . . 26.0 58.9 " ' 

Peats differ as much in specific weight as in com- 
position. The cause of the difference is, perhaps, not 
so clearly ascertained, but it is supposed that the degree 
of decomposition which the substance has undergone 
determines principally, in most cases, the difference of 
specific weight in peat from the same locality. 

Professor Everitt's investigations of the common 



260 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Lancashire peat show that, in regard to comparative 

specific gravity, — 

Compressed peat possesses 1.160 

Less pressed peat possesses 910 

Peat coke, hard pressed, possesses . . . 1.040 

Peat coke, less pressed, possesses 913 

Charcoal from hard woods, possesses .400 to .625 

Hence it appears that the coke prepared from com- 
pressed peat is nearly double the density of ordinary 
charcoal. In common practice, it has been the custom 
to estimate that one hundred pounds of charcoal occupy 
the same space as two hundred pounds of coke. Peat 
coke would occupy, weight for weight, the same space 
as common coke. 

Professor Everitt adds that, where bulk of stowage 
and high intensity of heat are important considerations, 
the peat coke is superior to charcoal. Moreover, the 
density of peat coke may, by means of improvements in 
the mode of manufacture recently introduced, be carried 
up from thirty to fifty per cent, beyond that indicated 
above ; which, of course, increases the comparison in its 
favor. 

The calorific value or power of peat coke may be 
commercially averaged as equal to coal coke. The 
evaporating powers of the two are nearly equal ; but 
peat coke has the advantage of freedom from sulphur ', 
and those conversant with the use of fuel in the manu- 
facture of metals will readily appreciate this. 

Its superiority is decided when used for the follow- 
ing purposes : — 

For the working of malleable iron. 

For melting unmalleable or cast iron. 

For the smelting and general manufacture of iron 
from the ore ; and 



TESTS, EXPERIMENTS, AND TESTIMONY. 



261 



For all descriptions of brass and copper work. 
Karmarsh arrived at the following results in regard to 
the specific weights of Hanoverian peat, to wit : — 

Light colored young peat, nearly unchanged 

moss 0.113 to 0.263 

Young brownish black peat, an earthy matrix 

intersected with roots 0.240 to 0.600 

Old earthy peat, without any fibrous texture. 0.564 to 0.902 
Old or pitch peat 0.639 to 1.039 

Of a large number of samples examined by Sir Rob- 
ert Kane and Dr. W. K. Sullivan, the results, as shown 
below, serve to indicate the wide difference which is 
found to exist in this respect in European peats : — 



1. . 0.297 

2. . 0.405 

3. . 0.669 

4. . 0.450 



5. 


. 0.351 


9. . 0.655 


13. 


. 0.523 


17. 


. 0.323 


6. 


. 0.661 


10. . 0.434 


14. 


. 0.274 


18. 


. 0.924 


7. 


. 0.335 


11. .0.984 


15. 


. 0.394 


19. 


. 1.058 


8. 


. 0.476 


12. . 0.681 


16. 


. 0.437 


20. 


. 0.481 



21. . 0.629 

22. . 0.280 

23. . 0.546 

24. . 0.855 



The maximum showing a density of 1.058, and the mini- 
mum 0.235. 

Similar results may be said to characterize the peats 
of this country, varying, as there, according to the age, 
location, climate, and character of the deposits. 



Tests, Experiments, and Testimony. 

We had intended to devote a chapter especially to 
statements relating to trials of this fuel which have been 
made, as demonstrating the practicability of using it, its 
relative value, and the great variety of purposes for 
which it may be easily, effectually, and economically 
used ; also statements and opinions of practical and sci- 
entific men, which would be of interest, and are entitled 
to consideration in this connection. 



262 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

So much testimony and so many statements of this 
character have, however, been incorporated in what we 
have said in preceding ohapters, that more are not re- 
quired, and it is deemed sufficient simply to indicate on 
what pages those already recited may be found, to wit : 

Miscellaneous, — Pages 32, 59, 67, 71, 72, 74, 
82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 89, 98, 99, 100, 103, 110, 112, 
114, 115, 116, 120, 121, 122, 123, 141, 147, 148, 
149, 162, 165, 166, 170. 

Peat Charcoal. — 70, 71, 72, 243, 244, 250, 254, 
256, 257, 258, 259, 260. 

Working Iron.-— 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 
180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 188, 189, 190, 191, 
192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197. 

Generating Steam. — 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 
204, 205, 206, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 
215, 216, 225, 226, 227, 228. 

Domestic Purposes. — 217, 219, 220. 

Intensity of Heating Power. — 71, 72, 222, 257, 
.258, 259, 260. 

How to use Peat. — 225, 226, 227, 228. 

Gas. — 166, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 
237, 238, 239. 

Gunpowder and Fireworks. — 240. 

Chemical Products.— 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 
246, 254, 255, 256, 257. 

Analyses and Properties. — 248, 249, 250, 251, 
252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257. 

Specific Gravity. — 259, 260, 261. 

As before remarked, it should be borne in mind that 
peats differ in quality and characteristics, and conse- 
quently in their heating properties and value, full as 
much as wood and coal in all their varieties ; moreover, 
that the results obtained from this fuel, as from any 



PEAT FOR PAVEMENTS. 2G3 

other, will in all cases depend very much upon the man- 
ner in which it is burned. We are told that a certain 
service is obtained from a boiler with one cord of wood, 
or one ton of coal ; but unless we know whether the 
wood be pine or hickory, or the coal Pictou or Lehigh, 
we have no certain data from which to make accu- 
rate or even approximate calculations. So also of peat ; 
it is necessary; to know somewhat of its characteristics in 
each case reported, in order to form a correct estimate 
of its relative value for the service done. The terms by 
which to designate these characteristics and qualities, so 
as to be generally understood and adopted, have yet to 
be determined upon ; but the necessities of the case will 
doubtless bring them out in good time. 

Peat for Pavements. 

The solid bitumen from the distillation of peat may 
be employed like asphalt in the preparation of mastic 
for paving ; and experiments have shown that peat itself 
may be converted into a similar material by the follow- 
ing process : Having been well dried, it is mingled with 
from ten to fifteen per cent, of coal-tar, and the mixture 
boiled for several hours, until the peat dissolves into a 
viscid liquid, which, when cooled, is solid, and resem- 
bles asphalt. 

Another account says, — 

" For pavements, when combined with an artificial 
asphaltum composed of carbonate of lime and coal-tar, 
it is said to form a solid and elastic road, superior, in 
many respects, to native asphaltum. The tendency of 
this artificial asphalt to crack and break is counteracted 
by the strong fibre of the peat ; which, if added to the 
chalk and tar while warm, acts as a binder when the 
mass is cooled, and obviates its brittleness." 



264 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 



Paper from Peat. 

J. Lallemand, of Besancon, France, procured, in 
1854, a patent for producing paper from the fibrous 
portions of peat, mixed with from five to ten per cent, of 
rag pulp, the peat having been treated by a peculiar 
process described by him ; after which, the mixture is 
subjected to the ordinary processes for making paper. 

Experiments on a limited scale, in this country, have 
demonstrated the practicability of producing good paper 
from some kinds of peat. 

Peat for Building and Ornamental Work. 

During the past season we have several times sug- 
gested that the characteristics of peat were such that it 
required but little ingenuity to make use of it for build- 
ing, ornamental, and other purposes, in the same man- 
ner as, or as a substitute for, terra-cotta and papier- 
mache. 

More recently a paragraph has been shown us, cut 
from the "Builder" (1860), stating that improvements 
in manufactures of peat had been patented by Mr. H. 
Hodgson, of Ballyreine and Merlin Park, and Mr. P. 
M. Crane, of the Irish Peat Works, Athy, which con- 
sist in preparing from peat, in its natural state, blocks, 
slabs, or pieces of any size, form, or thickness, which, 
when so prepared, are said to be useful and economical 
in the construction of parts of buildings, and for various 
other purposes. 

These blocks are placed between cloths, of woven or 
textile fabric, or other suitable material ; and the peat 
is placed between shelves, and submitted to hydraulic 






PEAT l'DU TANNING LEATHER. , 265 

or other pressure. Part of the water is forced out, and 
the peat solidified ; and drying is effected either by ex- 
posure to the atmosphere, or in a room heated artificially, 
or by any other process. They are then put again be- 
tween the plates of an hydraulic or other press, and 
extreme pressure put on them. 

If the product of this invention be required for use 
for inside work in building, such as partitions, linings, 
inside roofing, or for other work, as a non-conduct- 
ing substance, they do not require other further prep- 
aration than shaping, provided they are not to be 
exposed to moisture. But the slabs or pieces used for 
roofing (instead of slates, tiles, or other things of that 
nature) are prepared to resist the wet or action of the 
atmosphere by steeping them in, or saturating or coat- 
ing them with, some fitting material to resist 'moisture. 

Toys, fancy articles, and even rings and jewelry, have 
been produced from peat, and have much the same 
appearance as the same articles made from India rubber. 

Peat for Tanning Leather. 

It has recently been stated, on what appears to be 
good authority, that the amount of resinous and vege- 
table matter in some peats render them apparently a 
superior material for tanning purposes. 

If this should prove to be the case, it will require 
only to demonstrate and establish the fact, and a market 
will readily be created. Once adopted, the consump- 
tion of it would be large and steady. The matter is 
certainly worthy of careful investigation. 



266 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 



Antiseptic Properties of Peat. 

We have had occasion several times to refer to the 
antiseptic properties of peat. On this subject, Pro- 
fessor Lyell, whom we have before quoted, says, — 

" One interesting circumstance attending the history 
of peat-mosses, is the high state of preservation of ani- 
mal substances buried in them for periods of many 
years. In June, 1747, the body of a woman was found 
six feet deep in peat, in a peat-moor in the Isle of 
Axholm, in Lincolnshire. Upon the feet were leathern 
shoes, or sandals, each cut out of a single piece of 
tanned ox-hide, folded about the foot and heel, and 
piked with iron. Such are described by Chaucer* as 
being worn in his time. This certainly afforded evi- 
dence of her having been buried there for many ages ; 
yet her nails, hair, and skin are described as having 
shown hardly any marks of decay. In a turbary on 
the estate of the Earl of Aloira, in Ireland, a human 
body was dug up, a foot deep in gravel, covered with 
eleven feet of peat : the body was completely clothed, 
and the garments seemed all to be made of hair. Be- 
fore the use of wool was known in that country, the 
clothing of the inhabitants was made of hair ; so that 
it would appear that this body had been buried at that 
early period : yet it was fresh and unimpaired. In the 
Philosophical Transactions, we find an example recorded 
of the bodies of two persons having been buried in 
moist peat in Derbyshire, in 1674, about a yard deep, 
which were examined twenty-eight years and nine 
months afterwards. " The color of their skin was fair 
and natural ; their flesh soft as that of persons newly 
dead.'" 



ANTISEPTIC PROPERTIES OF PEAT. 207 

In Dr. Rennie's Essays, reference is made to several 
other instances of* like character. 

" Among other analogous facts, we may mention that, 
in digging a pit for a well near Dulvcrton, in Somerset- 
shire, many pigs were found in various postures, still 
entire. Their shape was well preserved ; the skin, 
which retained the hair, having assumed a dry, mem- 
braneous appearance. Their whole substance was con- 
verted into a white, friable, laminated, inodorous, and 
tasteless substance, but which, when exposed to heat, 
emitted an odor precisely similar to broiled bacon. 

" We naturally ask whence peat derives this antiseptic 
property. It has been attributed by some to the carbonic 
and gallic acids which issue from decayed wood, as also 
to the presence of charred wood in the lowest strata of 
many peat-mosses ; for charcoal is a powerful antiseptic, 
and capable of purifying water already putrid. Vege- 
table gums and resins also may operate in the same 
way. Dr. Macculloch suggests that the soft parts of 
animal bodies, preserved in peat-bogs, may have been 
converted into adipocere by the action of water merely. 

"The Solway Marsh is a flat area, about seven miles 
in circumference, situated on the confines of England 
and Scotland. It is related that at the battle of Solway, 
in the time of Henry VIII. (1542), when the Scotch 
army, commanded by Oliver Sinclair, was routed, an 
unfortunate troop of horse, driven by their fears, 
plunged into this morass, which instantly closed upon 
them. The tale was traditional ; but the fact that a 
man and horse in complete armor were actually found 
by peat-diggers in the place where it was always sup- 
posed the affair had occurred, tends to authenticate the 
story. The skeleton of each was well preserved, and the 
different parts of the armor were easily distinguished. 



268 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

"This same moss, on the 16th of December, 1772, 
having been filled with water during heavy rains, rose 
to an unusual height, and then burst. A stream of 
black, half-consolidated mud began at first to creep over 
the plain, resembling, in the rate of its progress, an 
ordinary lava current. No lives were lost ; but the del- 
uge totally overwhelmed some cottages, and covered four 
hundred acres. The highest parts of the original moss 
subsided to the depth of about twenty-five feet, and the 
height of the moss on the lowest parts of the country 
w r hich it invaded was at least fifteen feet." Several 
other instances of a similar character, might be cited. 

" The antlers of large and full-grown stags are among 
the most common and conspicuous remains of animals 
in peat. They are not horns which have been shed ; 
for portions of the skull are found attached, proving 
that the whole animal perished. Bones of the ox, hog, 
horse, sheep, and other herbivorous animals, also occur ; 
and in Ireland, and the Isle of Man, skeletons of a 
gigantic elk ; but no remains have been met with be- 
longing to those extinct quadrupeds of which the living 
congeners inhabit warmer latitudes, such as the elephant, 
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, hyena, and tiger, though 
these are so common in superficial deposits of silt, mud, 
sand, or stalactite, in various localities throughout 
Great Britain. Then absence seems to imply that they 
had ceased to live before the atmosphere of this part 
of the world acquired that cold and humid character 
which favors the growth of peat. 

"We are informed by Deguer, that remains of ships, 
nautical instruments, and oars, have been found in many 
of the Dutch mosses ; and Gerard, in his f History of 
the Valley of the Somme,' mentions that in the lowest 
tier of that mess was found a boat loaded with, bricks, 



PTEA T AS A DISINFECTANT AGENT. 269 

proving that these mosses were, at one period, naviga- 
ble lakes, and arms of the sea, as were also many of the 
mosses on the coast of Picardy, Zealand, and Friesland. 
The canoes, stone hatchets, and stone arrow-heads, found 
in peat, in different parts of Great Britain, lead to sim- 
ilar conclusions." 

Professor Lyell, in a work on geology, published in 
London in 18G5, says of the peat of Denmark, "In the 
lower beds of peat (a deposit varying from twenty to 
thirty feet in thickness) , weapons of stone accompany 
trunks of the Scotch fir ; while, in the higher portions 
of the same bogs, bronze implements are associated 
with trunks and acorns of the common oak. All the 
quadrupeds found in the peat agree specifically with 
those now inhabiting the same districts, or which are 
known to have been indigenous in Denmark within the 
memory of man." 

Peat as a Disinfectant and Deodorizing Agent. 

Peat is very commonly used as a disinfectant and 
deodorizer, and every farmer knows its efficacy in these 
respects, when placed about vaults and drains, or other 
receptacles of filth. 

A famous " Chemical Deodorizing Powder " which 
has been extensively sold throughout the country for 
fifteen years past, is simply ]ieat, charred, pulverized, 
and put up in neat packages convenient for use, which 
are inscribed as follows : — 

"Nature is ever true to Herself. — -This prepara- 
tion is the greatest absorbent of carbonic acid gas in 
nature, and' also of all those noxious and poisonous 
miasma which are generated in thickly populated dis- 
tricts, from the decomposition of animal and vegetable 
substances. It is a great antiseptic, and will prevent 



270 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

the cholera and fever from entering your premises, as it 
absorbs all those noxious malaria which are so prev- 
alent during the warm season. It is indispensable in the 
sick room and in sleeping rooms, as a small quantity in 
an open vessel will keep the air pure and agreeable. It 
supersedes every other neutralizing substance, as it is 
entirely harmless and without odor of any kind. It is 
highly recommended by eminent chemists and medical 
men. It is really the abater of every nuisance" 

Although " nothing but peat," we are satisfied from 
our own experience, and testimony abundant, that the 
statement is true, and that it does possess the properties 
and virtues claimed for it. 

Peat as a Fertilizer. 

Peat, as a fertilizer, possesses a value to our farming 
and agricultural interests beyond what is generally ac- 
corded to it. The " Muck Manual," by S. L. Dana, of 
Lowell, published in 1843, is considered standard au- 
thority upon this latter point, and will be consulted with 
interest and profit by our farmers, as will also "John- 
son's Essays on Peat, Muck, and Commercial Manures," 
recently republished, with additions, under the title of 
tf Peat and its Uses as Fertilizer and Fuel" * in which 
the author treats of the characteristics that adapt it for 
agricultural uses, as, for instance, its remarkable power 
of absorbing and retaining water, both as a liquid and as 
a vapor ; its power of absorbing ammonia ; its effect in 
promoting the disintegration and solution of mineral in- 
gredients of the soil, and its influence on the temperature 
of the soil. He also treats of the ingredients and quali- 
ties which makepeat a direct fertilizer ; which are, the or- 
ganic matters, including nitrogen ; the inorganic or min- 

* Published by Orange Judd & Co., 41 Park Row, N. Y., 1866. 

$1.25. 



PEAT AS A FERTILIZER. 



271 



eral ingredients ; also some peculiarities relating to the de- 
cay of peat. The whole subject is treated with care and 
in detail, and much valuable data is given for estimating 
and illustrating its practical value as compared with 
stable manure, guano, &C. Farmers ought to have the 
book, and we cannot do them better service than to ad- 
vise them to buy it and read it. 

Professor Dana says, " Peat is too well known to ren- 
der it necessary to say that it is the result of that spon- 
taneous change in vegetable matter which ends in geine. 

© © © 

Peat is, among manures consisting chiefly of geine, 

what bone-dust is among manures consisting of animal 

© © 

matter. Peat is highly concentrated vegetable food. 
"When the state in which this food exists is examined, 
it is found not only partly cooked but seasoned. 

f * Peat consists of soluble and insoluble geine and salts. 
The proportion of these several ingredients must be 
known before the value of peat can be compared with 
similar constituents in cow-dung. This proportion is 
exhibited in the following table of constitution of Mas- 
sachusetts peats per 100 parts : — 



Locality. 


Soluble 
Geine. 


Insoluble 
Geine. 


Total 
Geine. 


Salts and 
Silicates. 


1. Dracut 


14. 


72. 


86. 


14. 


2. Sunderland 


26. 


56.60 


85.60 


14.40 


3. "Westborough 

4. Hadley 

5. Northampton .... 

6. " 


48.80 
34. 
38.30 
32. 


43.60 
60. 
44.15 
54.90 


92.40 
94. 

82.45 
86.90 


7.60 

6. 

17.55 
13.10 


7. " 


12. 


60.85 


72.85 


27.15 


8. " 


10. 


49.45 


59.45 


40.55 


9. " 


33. 


59. 


92. 


8. 


10. " 


46. 


46.80 


92.80 


7.20 


Average 


29.41 


55.03 


84.44 


15.55 


11. Watertown, pond mud . 


5.10 


8.90 


14. 


86. 


12. Danvers, pond mud . . 


8.10 


6.50 


14.60 


84.40 



272 PEAT AS A^s T AUTICLE OF FUEL. 

" Under the general name of peat, are comprised 
several varieties, which may be distinguished as, 1st. 
Peat, the compact substance generally known and used 
for fuel, under this name. 2d ; Turf, or swamp muck, 
by which is to be understood the paring which is re- 
moved before peat is dug. It is a less compact variety 
of peat. It is common in all meadows and swamps, 
and includes the hassocks. Both these varieties are 
included in the foregoing, from Xo.l to Xo. 10. It in- 
cludes also the mud of salt marshes. 3d. Pond mud,« 
the slushy material, found at the bottom of ponds when 
dry, or in low grounds, the wash of higher lands. This 
seldom contains more than 20 per cent, of geine. Xos. 
11 and 12 are of this description. 

" These varieties comprise probably a fair sample of all 
the peat and swamp muck and pond mud which occur 
in the various parts of the country. The results stated 
are those of the several varieties, when dried, at a tem- 
perature of 240° Fahr. 

"Peat ashes contain all the inorganic principles of 
plants which are insoluble, with occasional traces of the 
soluble alkaline sulphates and of free alkali. 

" All peat shrinks by drying, and when allowed to drain 
as dry as it w T ill, it still contains about § of its weight 
of water. It shrinks from § to f of its bulk. A cord 
wet becomes J to ^ of a cord when dry. To compare 
its value with cow-dung, equal bulks must be taken. 

"It is found, on analysis, that this does not differ much 
from fresh cow-dung, so far as salts, geine, and water are 
concerned. The salts of lime are actually about the same, 
while the alumina, oxide of iron, magnesia, in the sili- 
cates, added to the salts of lime, make the total amount 
of salts, in round numbers, equal that of cow-dung." 

He gives the following comparative weights and com- 



THAT AS A FERTILIZER. 



273 



position of a cord of cow-dung and a cord of each of 
two kinds of peat referred to in the foregoing table : — 



Dung . . 
Teat, No. 9 
Peat, No. 10 



Weight. 


Soluble 
Geine. 


Insoluble 

Geine. 


Total 
Geine. 


9289 lbs. 
9216 " 
9216 " 


128 lbs. 
376 " . 
519 " 


1288 lbs. 
673 » 
529 " 


1416 lbs. 
1049 « 
1048 " 



Salts of 
Lime. 

92 lbs. 
91 " 

81 " 



A cord of pond mnd (No. 11) weighs, when dug, 
6117 lbs., and contains solid matter 3495 lbs., com- 
posed of geine 495 lbs., of silicates and salts 3005 lbs. 
The salts of lime in pond mud are 2£ per cent. 

The salts and geine of a cord of peat are equal to the 
manure of one cow for three months. 

It is certainly a very curious coincidence of results, 
that Xature herself should have prepared a substance 
whose agricultural value approaches so near to cow- 
dung, the type of manures. 

The power of producing alkaline action on the insol- 
uble geine is alone wanted to make peat good cow- 
dung, and the question arises, How is to be given to peat 
(a substance which, in all its other characters, is so near- 
ly allied to cow-dung) that lacking element, ammonia ? 
How is that to be supplied? Without it, cow-dung 
itself would be no better than peat, not so good even ; 
for in peat nearly one half of the geine is already in a sol- 
uble state. By the addition of alkali to peat, it is put 
into the state which ammonia gives to dung, and it is 
found that for all agricultural purposes the desired result 
is obtained by adding to every cord of fresh dug peat 
90 to 100 lbs. pot or pearl ashes, or 60 to 65 lbs. of 
soda, or 16 to 20 bushels of common wood ashes. 

Abundant testimony is afforded that a cord of clear 
stable manure composted with two cords of peat, forms 
a manure of equal value to three cords of green dung. 
18 



274 peat as an article of fuel. 

Ashes of Peat. 

The ashes of peat are of very considerable value, 
are used to great advantage on some soils, 'and highly 
esteemed. Details of the composition of a variety of 
samples are given on page 253. 

Professor Dana says, "Peat ashes abound in carbo- 
nate, sulphate, and especially phosphate of lime. Free 
alkali may always be traced in peat ashes ; but alkali 
exists in it, rather as silicate, as in leached ashes." 

A correspondent writes, " Ship-loads of peat ashes 
from Holland, for the use of the London market gar- 
deners, are imported every year. They are grand for 
young clover." 

They also make a very serviceable cement, and are 
used to some extent for that purpose. It has been 
suggested that they would make an excellent polishing 
powder for lithographic stones, metals, &c. They cer- 
tainly possess a value, and should not be allowed to go 
to waste. 

Conclusions. 

In view of these statements, thus hastily given, and 
which have been extended beyond our original plan, 
although barely sufficient to introduce the subject, it 
must, we think, be evident to the most hasty reader, 
that the substance of which we treat is of sufficient im- 
portance to command earnest attention, not only from 
the business man, on the score of its application to 
domestic purposes, manufactures, and the arts, but 
from the philanthropist, in view of the relief it may be 
made to afford as one of the necessaries of life. 

The facts narrated, aside from those derived from 



AUTHORITIES QUOTED. 275 

personal experience and observation, are collected from 
a variety of sources ; and, in the hope that others may 
be led to investigate and pursue the subject more at 
length, we add a list of authorities, from nearly all of 
which we have drawn something (using freely, in many 
cases, the exact language of the several writers in con- 
nection with our own) , in many of which the subject is 
treated in detail, and in some with great ability. 

Geological Surveys of Great Britain. 

Martin's Statistics of the British Colonies. 

Lindley and Hutton's Fossil Flora of Great Britain. 

Macculloch's Statistics of the British Empire. 

Macculloch's Geographical and Statistical Dictionary. 

Sullivan's Journal of Industrial Progress. 

Kane's Industrial Resources of Ireland. 

Ireland and its Economy. 

Wakefield's Account of Ireland. 

Ordinance Survey, and report of the County of Londonderry. 

Lyell's Principles of Geology. 

Dana's Manual of Geology. 

Jameson's Mineralogy of the Scottish Isles. 

Dr. R. Rennie on Peat. 

Ure's Dictionary of Arts, Manufactures, and Mines. 

Appleton's Dictionary of Mechanics. 

Muspratt's Chemistry as applied to Arts and Manufactures. 

Encyclopaedia Americana. 

Encyclopaedia Britannica. 

New American Cyclopaedia. 

Brewster's Edinburgh Encyclopaedia. 

Rees' Cyclopaedia. 

Encyclopaedia Pertheasis. 

Encyclopaedia Metropolitana. 

Tomliuson's Encyclopaedia. 

Roman's Cyclopaedia of Commerce. 

Loudon's Encyclopaedia of Agriculture. 

Buckland on Coal. 



276 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Johnson on Coal. 

Williams on Combustion of Coal. 

Taylor's Statistics of Coal. 

Holland's History of Fossil Fuel. 

Parkinson's Organic Remains. 

Johnson's Essays. 

Dana's Muck Manual. 

Field Book of Manures. 

Report of Great Exhibition of Industry of all Nations, 1851. 

Report of Juries of International Exhibition of 1862. 

Patent Office Reports. 

Geological and Agricultural Reports of Nova Scotia, 
Canada, and the several New England, Northern, Mid- 
dle, and Western States. 

Numerous miscellaneous articles from — 

Silliman's American Journal of Science. 
Farmer's Magazine. 
London Mining Journal. 
Penny Cyclopaedia. 
Hunt's Merchants' Magazine. 
Mining Review. 
Philosophical -Transactions. 
. Scientific American. 
London Engineer. 

Proceedings of Geological Society, London. 
Engineering. 

Reports of American Institute, New York. 
Edinburgh Philosophical Journal. 
Annales des Mines. 

Association Allemande, faits commerciaux. 
Year Book of Facts. 
Annual of Scientific Discovery. 
Repertory of Arts. 
Repertory of Patent Inventions. 
Various Papers on Fuel, Iron, Gas, Steam, &c. 



THE 

UTILIZATION OF COAL DUST WITH PEAT, 

FOR THE PRODUCTION OF AX EXCELLENT FUEL, AT MODERATE COST, 
SPECIALLY ADAPTED FOR 'STEAM SEP.VICE. 



From time to time, during many years, attempts have 
been made, both in Europe and in this country, to utilize 
various kinds of inexpensive or waste materials for fuel, the 
majority of which have had special reference to the fine 
coal and coal dust, technically denominated slack, which, it 
is well known, accumulates in immense quantities at the 
mines, and in no inconsiderable quantities on the wharves 
and in the coal yards of dealers and large consumers. 

The amount of this material generally estimated to accu- 
mulate at the mouth of a mine is said to average full thirty 
per cent, of the entire quantity mined. This is considered 
not only as useless material, but an incumbrance upon the 
property and an item of expense in the business, requiring, 
as it does, no inconsiderable amount of labor to remove it, 
and area to store it, and so enormous have been these accu- 
mulations at some mines, in a series of years, that the 
owners have been obliged to purchase or secure " dumping 
ground " at a distance, and pay large sums annually for trans- 
portation in order to remove it and admit of the proper pros- 
ecution of mining operations. 

This "slack" may ordinarily be said to be of the same 
quality as the coal of merchantable size, sent from the same 
mines, and consequently, of equal value, aside from the 
simple difference in size. 

For some purposes, by means of furnaces specially adapt- 
ed, it has been found 'practicable to make use of this slack 
in the condition in which it comes from the mines, and 

(277) 



278 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

where this is practicable, it has a market value of about one 
third to one half the current value of merchantable coal. It 
is also used to a considerable extent in the manufacture of 
brick. The uses, however, to which it can be applied are 
limited, and the demand is of course limited, and at the pres- 
ent time is not sufficient to absorb the amount of screenings 
which inevitably accumulate in our city coal yards. 

The first point generally sought to be attained in attempt- 
ing to put this material into merchantable form, is to give it 
cohesion and size in such form as to render it available for 
use in much the same manner as the larger coals. 

For this purpose it has generally been mixed with some 
adhesive substance of combustible character, as tar, rosin, 
asphaltum, or other resinous materials, formed into balls or 
blocks under pressure, and in this condition delivered for use. 

It will readily be understood that a fuel compounded of 
such materials would be not only combustible but highly 
inflammable, and if perfectly made, would be of considerable 
value for certain purposes. It is, however, open to the objec- 
tion, that thus far it has not been practicable to produce from 
such mixtures any other than an exceedingly sticky mass, 
disagreable to handle and liable to leave a black mark, not 
easily removed, on anything with which it comes in contact. 
The combustible character of the materials used is, moreover, 
so dissimilar, that the more inflammable portion, as tar, rosin, 
&c, is not only ingnited but almost entirely consumed long 
before the coal is burned out, so that unless great caution is 
used, the mass of fine coal will gradually fall through the 
grate bars or become imbedded in the bottom of the fire-box, 
so closely as to be almost impervious to a sufficient draft of 
air to sustain combustion, and is therefore self-destructive of 
the results sought to be obtained. 

Added to this, is the fact, that in most of these cases the 
cost of the resinous materials, and the labor required, has 
been more than the real value of the fuel after it was in 
shape for use. 

A method has been devised, and its practicability 



THE UTILIZATION OF COAL DUST. 27i> 

« 
thoroughly demonstrated and tested, by which this material 
may be rendered of the same value for fuel as merchantable 
coal, and that, too, by simple means, and at very moderate 
cost. 

Numerous theories and plans have been proposed to ac- 
complish this end, but without attaining, until now, the results 
esseutial to a business success in the enterprise, — the im- 
portant feature being the production of a really good fuel at 
small cost. 

For several years past, Dr. H. S. Lucas, of Chester, 
Mass., has devoted time and attention to the practical solu- 
tion of this problem, and has, from time to time, obtained 
such results as gave promise of good success, until the spring 
of 1866, when his experiments, which until that time had 
been conducted on a limited scale, showed results of so 
marked a character that it was deemed advisable to test the 
whole matter on a somewhat larger scale, and in a more 
public manner ; the results of which have given proof, 
beyond a question, of the perfect success of the method of 
manufacturing the fuel, and of its superior value as an article 
of fuel, especially for steam and smelting purposes. 

The coal dust is mixed with crude peat in given propor- 
tions, and by a very simple process is manufactured into 
blocks of convenient size and form, which are dense and co- 
hesive, and maybe used for fuel very soon after passing from 
the mill, though it improves by exposure to the air for a few 
days. 

The cost of manufacturing the fuel, after the materials are 
at the mill, is less than one dollar per ton. 

The buildings and machinery necessary for producing it 
are quite inexpensive, and the laborers employed may, for 
the most part, be of the least expensive class. 

The expense of transportation of the materials to the mill, 
and thence, after manufacture, to the place of sale or con- 
sumption, will generally prove to be the most important item 
f cost to be considered. 

The most advantageous locality at which to make this fuel 



280 PEAT AS AX ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

will generally be found to be near to or by the side of a peat 
bog. 

One very important discovery in relation to this matter is 
the fact that salt water, or marine peats, are equally valuable 
for this purpose as the best inland peats, and some of the ex- 
periments made, go far to prove that in certain respects they 
are superior for this purpose ; so that, in this simple fact, we 
have opened up an immense value to marshes by the sea, 
which are almost without limit in extent, while at the same 
time they afford, for this special purpose, the material re- 
quired, at the very point where the main item of cost (trans- 
portation of the coal dust), would be at its minimum; for 
vessels bringing it from point of shipment, can discharge 
directly at the' place of manufacture, on or by the side of 
these marshes. 

Our numerous lines of railroad, which now carry coal 
directly from the mines to various points inland, are, of 
course, equally available for transporting the same material 
in the form of dust or " slack," and many of them pass di- 
rectly by or through extensive beds of peat, where it can be 
dumped and manufactured with the utmost facility. 

For inland consumption, where supplies of coal are now 
received by vessels to the seaboard, and thence by rail, the 
same means are equally available for dust. 

In all these cases, this advantage is also apparent, that the 
quantity required to be brought from the mines to yield a 
given amount of fuel here, is less, by a very considerable 
percentage, than of merchantable coal ; that is, a concern 
which uses five thousand tons of coal would require to pur- 
chase only three thousand tons of "slack" instead, saving 
thereby, of course, the freight on two thousand tons. They 
also save the first cost of two thousand tons of coal, and the 
difference between the first cost of coal and slack on three 
thousand tons ; against which is the cost of manufacturing 
the whole with peat, and the expense of re-shipment and 
transportation to the place of consumption or sale ; the dif- 
ference between these being very nearly the net gain or 
saving by the operation. 



THE UTILIZATION OF COAL DUST. 281 

The following report of the use of this fuel on the West- 
ern Railroad is deemed sufficient, " without note or com- 
ment," to satisfy the most incredulous, that our statements in 
regard to its value for " severe steam service " are not exag- 
gerated : — 

Chester, Mass., Sept. 5, 1866. 
T. H. Leavitt, Esq. 

Dear Sir : I am happy to comply with your request to 
give you detailed statement concerning the trials made on 
the Western Railroad, from this point, with the compound 
fuel (peat and coal) manufactured under my direction, at the 
works of your company in Lexington. 

The fuel arrived in good order, and, by the consent of the 
managers of the road, we w r ere allowed to use the freight 
locomotive Rhode Island, built at Lowell in 1838, twenty- 
eight years ago, — weight, twenty-six tons ; four feet six 
inch driving-wheel ; sixteen inch cylinder ; twenty inch 
stroke ; two inch exhaust pipes ; a wood-burner, one of the 
poorest on the rpad, and by no means adapted for burning 
our fuel to advantage. 

The first trial was made 12th July last, on a regular trip 
from Chester to Washington, — the latter point being the 
" summit" of the road; and the section between here and 
there is well known to be the most difficult portion of the 
whole line to traverse, having several short and some double 
curves, with a grade of eighty-three feet to the mile for a part 
of the distance, and requiring the most severe steam service 
from locomotives. 

The distance is twelve miles, and the total rise or eleva- 
tion between the two stations is 950 feet. 

We weighed and took on 1000 pounds of the fuel, and 
started from the station at 3.15 P. M., with sixty pounds 
steam ; engineer, Theo. Dandurand, who has been on the 
road for ten years. 

Our train consisted of eleven freight cars, three of them 
loaded, which is equal to fourteen empty cars, — a heavy 
train for this grade. Rail bad. 



282 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

The grade, on leaving the station, rises for half a mile, and 
then descends for, perhaps, the same distance ; and then 
commences the heavy grade. 

Xine minutes after starting the steam had run up to 140, 
and we had to open the furnace door. 

Twice we pumped cold water into the boiler, — once with 
both pumps, — when the steam fell ten degrees, from 130 to 
120; but in five minutes was up again to 130. Had we 
been burning wood, and used both pumps in the same man- 
ner as in this case, the steam would have run down sixty 
degrees to 70, — so said the engineer. 

The furnace door Avas open nearly four fifths of the time. 

We made seven miles in thirty minutes, having passed the 
worst curves and the heaviest grade. 

Here our fuel gave out, — steam standing at 130 ; and we 
were obliged to commence using wood for the remaining five 
miles of the trip. Steam soon fell to 120, and we were 
unable to raise it above that point. 

"We ran t^ie first seven miles, by far the hardest portion of 
the route, in thirty minutes with our fuel ; while the remain- 
ing five miles, with wood, took forty-five minutes. 

The facts brought out are these : It will burn in any 
wood-burning engine, though, if it is to come into common 
use, we shall doubtless have fire-boxes specially adapted for 
it, which can easily be done ; and a little experience will 
teach economy in its use. The exhaust pipes should be 
larger than for hard wood, perhaps three or three and a half 
inches. Combustion appeared to be* almost perfect ; there 
was no caking of the fuel in the fire-box, and it made but 
very little smoke. The heat is clear, steady, and extremely 
intense. 

The engineer was astonished and delighted ; said it was 
the greatest fuel for making steam that he ever used. He 
thinks the half ton, if burned in one of their large locomo- 
tives with six foot driving-wheel, would have carried a pas- 
senger train from Chester to Pittsfield, twenty-four miles. 
He thinks a ton of the fuel would take a passenger train 



THE UTILIZATION OF COAL DUST. 283 

over a common grade road, one hundred miles, and says 
a tender will carry four tons of it. If his estimates and 
opiuions are correct, you will see at once that, at a cost of 
even ten dollars per ton for the fuel, it would cost but ten cents 
per mile to draw a passenger train ; but, if the railroad 
company were to make it themselves, at your figures of first 
cost to produce, the expense would be but little over three 
reins per mile to run a train. 

But, leaving figures and estimates for the present, the fact 
is fully demonstrated and established that this fuel will make 
more steam than any other of which I have any knowledge. 
About the same time we made two other trips with the same 
fuel. Of one I made notes, as in this case, and of the other 
I did not. They fully confirmed the results of the first trial, 
and were so similar in character that it is hardly necessary 
to repeat the story. With the improvements you have made 
in your machinery, and the apparatus you are now perfecting, 
especially adapted to the manufacture of this fuel, I cannot 
doubt that you will produce an article superior even to what 
you sent me, and, I sjiould presume, at even less cost. 

In order to a better understanding of the relative amount 
and cost of this fuel, as compared with wood, I should state 
that I went over the same route with the same engine, burn- 
ing wood. We took on 2^- cords by measurement ; were 
sixty-nine minutes running time between the stations ; stood 
at Becket fifty minutes waiting for trains to pass ; and, on 
arriving at Washington, found by measurement that we had 
consumed two cords lacking ten feet. Cost of wood for the 
trip, at $7.00 per cord, was $13.27. 
Yours, truly, 

Heman S. Lucas. 

Chester, Mass., Nov. 29, 1866. 
I have read the foregoing statement, and hereby certify 
that it is in strict accordance with the facts in the case. 

Theodore Dandurand, Engineer. 



284 PEAT AS AN ARTICLE OF FUEL. 

Chester, Mass., Nov. 29, 1866. 
By invitation of Dr. Lucas, I went over the road on the 
engine, on two of the trips made with the mixed fuel, and 
am happy to give my testimony to the entire accuracy of the 
within statements. Hexry D. Wilcox. 

Hartford, Conx., Dec. 10, 1866. 
I was fireman on the locomotive " Rhode Island " at the 
time the trials were made. The above statements are 
strictly true. George Marshall. 

The fuel used on these trials was manufactured at the 
works of the Boston Peat Company, at Lexington, Mass. 

This company use and control the Leavitt Peat Machine, 
and their works are managed under the personal direction 
of Mr. Leavitt. 

He has cooperated with Dr. Lucas in his experiments, 
and has produced a modification of his machinery, with ad- 
ditions, which are now perfected, and by means of which 
this fuel is manufactured at the rate of fifty tons per day, at 
a cost for labor of less than one dollar per ton. The ma- 
chinery is simple, is easily set up and operated, and re- 
quires- about ten-horse power to run it. 

In the progress of these investigations and experiments, 
Dr. Lucas has likewise ascertained and developed the fact, 
that this improvement may be adapted, by certain modifica- 
tions, to the smelting of various kinds of ores ; also to the 
desulphurizing of ores, in the most perfect manner, — the 
process in all these cases involving but very small expense, 
compared with the cost of methods which now prevail. 

The ores and flux are crushed, mixed with coal and peat 
in ascertained proportions of each, and the whole is manu- 
factured together in the form of fuel, with which the furnace 
is charged at pleasure ; and the results obtained show a 
superior product of metal at small cost. 

The quick, intense heat generated, gives this fuel a decided 
advantage over any of the coals at present in use. 



THE UTILIZATION OF COAL DUST. 285 

For the purposes of gas companies, this method of mixing 
and preparing fuels has some very important advantages. 

It is well known that most companies use two or more 
kinds or qualities of coal for generating gas, — the poorer 
and cheapest kinds for volume, and the richer and more 
expensive, for body or strength. 

Numerous experiments, some on a large scale, have clearly 
developed the fact that peat has a very considerable value 
for the same purpose, the volume being larger, while the 
strength or illuminating power is believed to be above the 
average of coals. 

Doubtless still other uses of the principle of this invention 
will be discovered in time, but enough is already known to 
establish for it an important place in connection with the 
subject of cheap fuel. 



APPENDIX 



"We have felt a degree of pride at the exceedingly favor- 
able mention which has been made of the former editions of 
this work by the press, in all directions, but we have expe- 
rienced a much greater degree of satisfaction in observing 
the remarks, oftentimes at considerable length, which have 
been added, upon the subject-matter of which it treats, show- 
ing a quick appreciation of its importance, and a readiness, 
voluntarily, to aid in disseminating information concerning 
it, which is rarely accorded to any new enterprise. 

Some of the following extracts are of general, others of 
local, interest ; but all are worthy of careful perusal : certain 
it is, that all, with one accord, bear earnest testimony to the 
value of " peat as an article of fuel." 

From "The New York Independent." 

The Economical Value of Peat. — The great desideratum as to the use 
of peat has been to devise a method of consolidating it into a manageable and 
merchantable form at a moderate expense. The practicability of condensing it 
so as to produce an article of fuel of great value has been abundantly proved by 
numerous successful experiments. And it has also been shown by experiment 
that this fuel, when well prepared, has qualities which make it equal to any 
other, and, for some uses, superior to any. 

To burn in an open grate, in a sitting-room, it is both economical and agree- 
able; and for an open fire in a sick-chamber (where none but an open fire ought 
ever to be allowed), it is invaluable as a purifier of the air, without the produc- 
tion of any sulphurous or other injurious gas. For steam purposes, it is quick- 
er and more effective than any thing else, and would be of great use in driving 
our steam fire-engines. In making and refining iron, it is at least equal to 
charcoal; and, in the finer grades of iron-work, it is invaluable. It furnishes 
an illuminating gas, having, at least, double the power of coal gas; and many 
experiments place its comparative value much higher, while a great saving is 
effected in the manufacture by the entire absence of sulphur. 

The one essential problem has been to invent an economical method by which 
its natural porousness could be overcome so as to solidify it in more convenient 

(287) 



288 APPENDIX. 

blocks, that can be handled and transported, and that will burn without crum- 
bling- to pieces in the fire. The Boston Peat Company, No. 49 Congress Street, 
Boston, have perfected a process which appears to be completely successful, 
and at such a moderate expense as to admit of general application wherever 
there are peat-bogs of the extent of even an acre or more. 

By a machine of simple construction, but on a novel principle, the crude peat, 
wet as it comes from the ground, is dumped into a hopper, completely pulver- 
ized, so as to destroy the porousness, which no pressure can wholly overcome, 
and delivered in moulds, like bricks, which are dried in the open air for two 
or three weeks, and are then ready for delivery as good solid fuel, nearly as 
heavy as Liverpool coal. The machine costs fifteen hundred dollars, requires 
ten-horse power, and will work one hundred tons of crude peat in a day, mak- 
ing twenty-five tons or more of condensed fuel per day to each machine. The 
ordinary calculation in the city for that amount of steam-power is about twenty- 
five dollars a week; but as this machine would produce its own fuel, and may 
even be run with the refuse and unmerchantable stuff, the cost is much reduced. 
A further reduction would take place where several machines are run by one 
engine. The cost of ground for drying, and sheds for storage, may be less or 
more at pleasure. As neither the peat, nor the land it occupies, possesses any 
value in its natural state, all that is charged for royalty is simply so much 
wealth created by this great discovery. 

There is no lack of peat in this country to supply abundance of fuel for cen- 
turies. It is found in all parts of the Northern States, and as far south as 
Virginia, in vast quantities. The Geological Eeport of the State of New York 
describes and locates more than ten thousand acres in the river counties 
alone. In the central and western sections, the quantities are almost illimit- 
able. In Massachusetts, the Geological Eeport names nearly one hundred 
towns which have supplies of peat. Is is so in New Jersey, in Connecticut, on 
Long Island, and elsewhere. 

In sections where other fuel is difficult to be obtained, and very costly, they 
may have by this process an abundance of the best and most pleasant kind of 
fuel, both for domestic uses and for manufactures. 

When we consider that every acre of peat is calculated to be good for a 
thousand tons of condensed fuel, worth now eight or ten dollars a ton, at a 
cost of less than three dollars a ton for preparation, the amount of solid wealth 
which this invention will add to the country quite leaves petroleum in the 
background. 

From " The Boston Journal." 

The high price of coal, and the rapid destruction of our forests, ought to 
stimulate the people of New England, and indeed of the whole North, to an 
investigation of the feasibility of bringing^>ea£ into general use as an article of 
fuel. Wood is every year growing scarcer in New England, and the use of coal 
is fast spreading among country towns, where, a few years ago, the article was 
never seen. Our people have been prodigally wasteful of their wood-lots; and 
we are fast becoming dependent upon Pennsylvania and the British Provinces 
for all our fuel. Asa consequence, we have been compelled to pay seventeen 
dollars per ton for coal in this city the past winter ; and inland towns have paid 
eighteen or twenty dollars, while wood was sixteen dollars per cord. All the 
great cities on the Atlantic coast have been entirely at the mercy of coal opera- 
tors and speculators, and most exorbitant prices have been asked. 

Were wood and coal the only articles that can be used for cooking and heat- 
ing purposes, we might be reconciled to this state of things. But there is in 
New England, and indeed throughout the North, a great abundance of peat. 

One obstacle to the use of peat has been the difficulty of compressing it so as 



APPENDIX. 2S { .) 

to render it less bulky, owing- to its librous nature, which stoutly resists con- 
densation. This diffloulty bus boon overcome by machinery. 

Experiments have recently been made, under the auspices of some enter- 
prising merchants of Boston, for utilizing pent us a fuel. Tbe experiments 
made here have been completely successful ; and, if the sanguine expectations 
of those Who bare been engaged in this are realized, New England will, at no 
distant period, supply her own fuel. 

It is well known tbat peat lias been used for fuel, to some extent, in Eastern 
Massachusetts for several years. Tbcre is an abundance of it — thousands of 
millions of cords — scattered all over New England; and it is time, as we re- 
marked at tbe outset, that our people were stirring themselves to see if it may 
not be brought into general use in order to stop the waste of our forests, now 
growing every year more valuable for timber, cheapen the cost of fuel, and 
render us less dependent upon coal monopolists and speculators for this indis- 
pensable article. It lies at our very doors, and there is no reason why its 
value should not be developed. 

From " The Portland (Me.) Transcript." 

Any thiug that will give the people relief from the present high prices of 
coal, and tend to break up the monopoly of the coal-mining interest, while, at 
the same time, it saves our forests from further destruction, is worthy of a 
hearty patronage and encouragement; and we hope to see the attention of 
capitalists turned to the manufacture of peat. The people of Maine, so far 
removed from the coal-region, and paying so much for its transportation, 
should no longer neglect the rich deposits of fuel in the peat-beds scattered 
throughout the State. Dr. Jackson, in his Geological Survey of Maine, long 
since directed attention to the numerous valuable accumulations of this fossil 
fuel. He says,— 

" The time may arrive when, even in Maine, wood becoming scarce, her 
neglected peat-bogs will be resorted to for fuel ; though here, as in many other 
sections, were the superiority of the article over even wood or coal known and 
appreciated, the bogs would be worked now, rather than to await the period at 
which, for lack of other fuel, their valuable deposits shall be drawn upon." 

.He also says, that the localities of peat in Maine are so numerous, that it is 
hardly necessary to describe them, but points out localities in Bangor, Bluehill, 
Thomaston, Limerick, "Waterford, and near Portland. 

Prom " The Berkshire County Eagle." 

The subject is one which should receive especial attention in New England, 
where the resources of fuel are not what they need to be. 

Railroad men and manufacturers regard peat as superior to coal for the gen- 
eration of steam, and the manufacture of iron and steel. 

Prom " The New York Evening Post." 

Tt is one of many unpbilosophical things in the social history of our people, 
that so little progress has been made in the use of peat. It would seem as 
though we had been slow to believe that it was made to be used. As a natural 
product, under the wise ordering of things by the Creator, it is found in abun- 
dance in all parts of the country, as low down as the Dismal Swamp of Vir- 
ginia, in positions easily accessible, and in forms and qualities suited for every 
purpose of fuel. 

In its crude state, the peats most common arc not so agreeable as wood or 
coal for domestic purposes ; but the finer qualities of peat are preferable to 

19 



290 APPENDIX. 

cither, and most of the common sorts are capable of being condensed into a 
perfect and most desirable fuel. Being entirely free from sulphurous and 
other objectionable ingredients found in coal, it makes a delightful fire in the 
grate, giving a charm to the parlor, and a delight to the sick-chamber. For 
raising steam, it is unrivalled by any other substauce. One advantage is, that 
if creates no clinkers, and does not spoil the grate-bars like anthracite. In 
making the best iron, and in the finer processes of working iron and steel, it 
stands alongside of wood-charcoal. When charred, it is said to be better for 
welding purposes than charcoal itself. Many peats are also superior to the 
best bituminous coals for making gas." It is said that some varieties of peat 
are better for gunpowder than the charcoal made from dog-wood and alder. 

In the preparation of peat for convenient handling and use, a great variety 
of methods has been tried. The oldest and best peats are so solid and fine, 
that they dry into a hard substance like cannel coal, without any artificial pro- 
cess except cutting the blocks of proper size out of the bog, and laying them 
on the ground to dry. But most kinds are too light and porous for convenient 
use, and burn with much smoke and less heat, unless artificially condensed. 
The most common method was by pressure; but this is expensive, and not 
fully effectual. 

We have seen specimens of condensed peat, prepared by the Boston Peat 
Company, which appear to come nearer to the ideal fuel than anything else 
within our knowledge. 

A single machine, driven by a six-horse steam power, will work fifty tons 
of raw peat in a day, which will yield about one fourth fo one third of its 
weight in condensed fuel. 

As a peat swamp is generally unproductive, and therefore useless for agri- 
cultural purpose, it follows that the cost of fuel is the expense of manufacture, 
with the addition of the value which the demand may give to land otherwise 
worthless. The Boston Peat Company have patented their processes, and sell 
their machines. 

From " The Syracuse Journal." 

Peat as Fuel. — This article is soon destined to enter into lively competi- 
tion with anthracite; and the probable effect will be that the " coal monopo- 
lists " will be brought to their senses and fair terms at the same time. 

The article of peat as fuel was put to a test on the Central Railroad yesterday, 
and proved highly satisfactory. 

There is an extensive bed of peat at Oswego Falls, opposite the village of 
Fulton, in Oswego County, on land owned by Bradford Kennedy, Esq., hard- 
ware merchant, of this city. For the purpose of testing its quality as fuel, a 
quantity was dried and prepared in the usual way, to be tested on one of the 
locomotives of the Central Eailroad. Half a ton of that article, dried and 
ready for use, was sent down to this city, and Engine JS'o. 100, a wood-burner, 
made ready for a short trial trip. Superintendent Lapham, of the Central, and 
Superintendent Van Vleck, of the Oswego Road, together with a party of other 
gentlemen, including Messrs. Howe and W. S. Xelson of Fulton, Derastes 
Kellogg of Skaneateles, Mr. Gedd#s, Jr., Mr. Southrneade of New York, aud 
others, witnessed the trial. The locomotive was fired up at the Pound House 
in this city, adjacent to the Central machine-shops, and run to Warner's Station 
and back, a distance of twenty miles, in the space of forty-five minutes. The 
engine drew but the car containing the excursionists, and was propelled at a 
moderate speed, without any attempt at "making time;" the object being 
merely to test the article of fuel. The peat made a beautiful fire, throwing out 
intense heat, and burned with a steady flame. The steam was kept at an even 
gauge of from ninety to one hundred pounds during the trial trip, and Superin- 



APPENDIX. 291 

tondents Lnpham and Van Yleek were highly pleased with the test of peat as 
fuel, pronouncing it a BUOCesB. We understand that the usual amount of fuel 
consumed by coal-burning- engines is a ton to every twenty miles; but, in this 
instance, only half a. ton of peat was used, giving evidence of its value as a sub- 
stitute for anthracite. 

From "The Springfield (Mass.) Republican." 

Peat contains the same chemical constituents as coal ; indeed it seems to be 
only an imperfect form of the same material, — young coal, coal in the crude. 

In Maine, beds of coal have been found in draining a bog, evidently formed 
from the wood of a species of fir, the balsam of which had been changed to 
bitumen, with which the deposit is very highly charged. 

Peat has long been used for firing in some locations, especially in Ireland, 
where it makes a sweet and wholesome fire, safer for delicate lungs than either 
coal or wood. The heat is less drying, the ashes less troublesome, and the 
smoke does not irritate the eyes. 

In its native beds, peat is heavily charged with water; and the want of a 
cheap method of drying and condensing it has prevented its being burned to 
any extent in this country ; but modern researches have removed this objec- 
tion, and means have been found for preparing it as fuel in large quantities, in 
merchantable shape, at a cost of four or five dollars a ton. The process has 
been patented; and the company, organized in Boston, has works now in oper- 
ation in Lexington, Mass. The fuel is claimed to surpass coal for many pur- 
poses, especially for generating steam, and for the manufacture of iron and 
6teel. 

Peat-charcoal is denser than that from wood; and, as it contains no sulphur, 
iron made with it is of superior quality, and will not splinter. 

Gas from peat has" been used for some time in Paris : the hydrogen ob- 
tained is very richly carburetted, and is better than that from coal for illumi- 
nating purposes. 

There are numerous indications that the stores of peat found in almost every 
township, the accumulations of past ages, will prove a rich inheritance to us 
and our children. 

From " The Hartford Press." 

The fuel question is already a serious one in manufacturing New England, 
which requires a greater supply for purposes of warmth, and for its thousands 
of engines, than almost any other part of the country. Our wood has long 
been scarce and costly; and we are so far from the great coal-beds as to make 
that material expensive. Attention has lately been directed to peat as a substi- 
tute for wood and coal, and, it is believed, with favorable results. A process 
has been discovered by which peat can be converted into a dry solid substance, 
in great quantities, at a moderate cost. The "fuel so produced burns readily, 
gives a mellow but intense heat, is most agreeable for burning in the open 
grate, and is especially adapted to furnaces for generating steam. 

From "The Madison ("Wis.) State - Journal." 

The recent invention of machinery for pressing peat, in connection with 
the increasing scarcity of fuel in the West, and the exorbitant prices of 
wood and coal, has attracted attention anew to the extensive peat-beds near 
this city. 

The subject of manufacturing fuel from this material was discussed quite 
prominently some ten years ago among our citizens; but the comparative 
cheapness of wood at that time, and the absence of any perfected machinery 



292 APPENDIX. 

for reducing it to proper form, as well as the financial revulsion which shortly 
followed, led to a postponement of the project. 

A further investigation of the qualities of this peat, of the extent of the 
deposit, and of the practicability of cheaply manufacturing from it an article 
of fuel equal in heating-power to the best coal, induces the belief that it will 
speedily become a source of immense profit to the fortunate proprietor, and 
of great advantage to the city and adjacent country. It will also, when 
worked into convenient compass for transportation, constitute an important 
article of export to the neighboring cities with which we have railroad con- 
nections. 

We recently witnessed some experiments with it, as an article of fuel in a 
common wood-stove. The peat used was unpressed. The specimens burned 
with a flame clear and brilliant as seasoned maple or hickory, and produced 
no unpleasant odor like that of coal. From the trial we saw made of it, we 
conclude that it will make a most desirable article of fuel; and we trust the 
day is. not distant when it will be made available, and this market supplied 
with it. If we are not mistaken, Colonel Slaughter, in opening this peat- 
bed, will, if he does not •' strike oil," find a source of wealth not less valuable 
and remunerative. 

From " The Madison (Wis.) Patriot." 

We feel an interest, in common with our people, in keeping the subject of 
Wisconsin peat before the public, that it may so interest the attention of cap- 
italists as to insure its more complete development, which we believe to be all 
that is necessary to bring it into general use, and prove it a source of very 
great benefit to our people. The middle, southern, and some of the western 
counties of our State, are but sparsely timbered; and the very limited quantity 
of timber is growing less every year, until the scarcity and price of fuel have 
become a question of serious inquiry with the people. 

Peat or coal must be used as a substitute, — the latter we have not, nor can 
it be had, only at a heavy cost; but peat we have in abundance, and within our 
own limits. To this we must sooner or later resort, and the sooner the better 
for those who are compelled to pay the present high prices of wood. 

The peat-beds near this city will, when developed, furnish an abundance of 
cheap fuel; and, as it is inexhaustible in quantity, its use will prove a source 
of wealth, not only to the enterprising proprietors, but to the country. 

We have seen the peat tried, and find it an excellent substitute for coal. It 
has been used in our press-room furnace in driving our engine, and found equal 
to the best coal. We have therefore no hesitation in bearing witness to the 
good qualities of the peat, having used it; and unite most cordially in the gen- 
eral wish, that this rich mine of wealth may be speedily developed, and the 
peat brought within the reach of those who would so readily avail themselves 
of its use. Our wood lands are principally oak openings, and the wood is 
rapidly disappearing. The price is now from seven to eight dollars per cord. 
Dr. Hayes, of Boston, the first analytic chemist in our country, pronounces 
this peat equal to good oak-wood fuel, and for gas equal to the best cannel 
coal. Many experiments have been made with it in this neighborhood for 
fuel by our most judicious men, and their accounts correspond with Dr. 
Hayes's analysis. It must be of great value to the proprietors, as well as 
benefit to the country. 

From " The Milwaukee Sentinel." 
Upon a recent visit to Madison, we were shown by Mr. Hough, County Sur- 
veyor, a plat of the peat-bog lying six miles weat of that town, and immediate- 



APPENDIX. 293 

ly upon Che Madison and Milwaukee Railroad. In company with an intelligent 
Irishman, who Informed us that, in density and endurance it was far superior 
to the Irish peat (not so inflammable, nor vested with the peculiar odor in 
burning - ), we instituted some experiments; in the first place by burning" in a 
blacksmith's forge, where it gave out a steady, brilliant heat, though not as in- 
tense as that of bituminous coal, yet heating iron readily. We placed a peck 
of it with an equal amount of Briar Hill Coal in the open coal grate, and found 
it not only to outlast the coal, but to give a far preferable fire; quietly, pleas- 
antly, not snappishly inclined, and free from the odious smoke and soot of coal, 
which will be a great desideratum to neat housekeepers. 

The owners are making arrangements to work the beds extensively during 
the next season ; and we predict for it a large sale, even within our own city, 
should its cost be even greater than coal, solely on account of its cleanliness. 
My credulity was heavily taxed while at Madison, through the stories told of 
its comparative value with wood in generating steam, at a steam saw-mill in 
the neighborhood of the beds ; but I must confess myself astonished at my own 
experiments, proving it of far more value than 1 deemed possible, and worth 
not less than $1,000,000 to the fortunate owners, should no other extensive 
beds be discovered to mar its value. Surely such unheard of " diggings " 
ought to stimulate other explorations. 

From "The Lewiston (Me.) Journal." 

M. W. Farwell, Esq., has used peat in his house and under the boilers in 
his bleachery. He began his experiments last year, and, though the peat is 
not of the best quality, yet it proves to be so valuable that he will cut a 
thousand cords the present season. He regards it quite equal to charcoal. 
It makes a cheerful, fire, and lights a room better than wood : its smoke does 
not irritate the eyes, nor does it obstruct respiration. It can also be used for 
many manufacturing purposes. 

From " The Brunswick (Me.) Telegraph." 

The introduction of peat is no mere fancy, but a subject of grave impor- 
tance, especially in these times of exorbitant prices for coal, and unreasonable 
prices for wood. The " Journal " speaks of its making a cheerful fire. True ; 
and one of our most cherished recollections is that of an old farmhouse in 
Byfield, Essex County, Mass., the residence of a grandfather. The kitchen 
fireplace was large enough to admit an ox-cart; and in that same fireplace 
always blazed in winter, a peat-fire, giving both light and heat. Beside it we 
have sat for hours, watching the roasting of potatoes, cracking of nuts, drink- 
ing of cider, and maliciously (little rascal that we were) eying the young ras- 
cals who were courting the girls, our respected aunts. Those were glorious 
times ; and we have ever since had a fondness for peat as an article of fuel. The 
fires of love never burn dimly beside it. 

From " The Newport (B. I.) News." 

We have received from the publishers " Facts about Peat." The work is 
deserving of more than passing notice. No subject is of wider interest to the 
whole family of man than that of fuel ; and its high price in this country for 
some time past, gives the subject a peculiar interest to us in America. 

Hitherto the world has been dependent upon wood and the different kinds of 
mineral coal. It has not been a generally recognized fact that there exists 
another article, formed of wood-deposits like coal, but of a much more recent 
formation, and known by the name of peat, which is destined to be brought 



294 APPENDIX. 

into an important competition with its two rivals, wood and coal. Many 
people in our own community, we will venture to say, never saw a specimen 
of it, and have scarcely heard of it. 

Its supply is said to be abundant along the lines of our railroads, and in the 
vicinity of our machine-shops and founderies in all parts of the country where 
there is woodland. As the article of fuel is one of great expense in our domes- 
tic economy, this subject cannot fail to interest all ; and the introduction of a 
new, cheap, and abundant article of fuel, to be dug out at our own doors, as it 
were, is an important matter. "We commend this work, and the subject upon 
which it treats, to the attention of all. 

From " The Fall Eiver News." 

We consider this a valuable work, especially at the present time, when coal 
is almost beyond the reach of the laboring classes. Hitherto we have been 
entirely dependent upon wood and coal, while almost every township has peat- 
beds sufficient to furnish the inhabitants with a fuel, in every respect, when 
properly prepared, equal, if not superior, to either. "We cheerfully commend 
this book to the attention of all ; for the whole community are interested in the 
subject on which it treats. 

From " The Nantucket Inquirer." • 

The peat-beds on Nantucket and the adjacent islands are estimated at six 
hundred and fifty acres, from one to fourteen feet in thickness. The rapid 
destruction of our forests, and the constantly increasing price of wood, have 
now brought the article of peat to the notice of manufacturers and railroad 
companies, and will no doubt stimulate some enterprising Yankee to get up a 
machine that will press the peat dry, as it is taken from the beds, and turn it 
out in the shape and consistence of bricks. Then will our peat lands prove to 
be a mine of wealth to the owners. 

From "The Biddeford (Me.) Journal." 

The subject is beginning to excite considerable attention, not only on account 
of the fears of a growing scarcity of wood, its high price, and also that of coal, 
but because it forms one of the products of industry, which, when perfected 
from its raw state, forms, like mines of iron, lead, copper, and silver, great 
wealth to a nation. 

From " The Brooklyn Union," Oct. 2, 1865. 

Peat. — A New Process. — Through the benignity of the Creator, our 
country is richly provided with the means of counteracting the strikes of 
miners, combinations of dealers, and quarrels of corporations, which so often 
distract the coal market, and make fuel scarce and dear. In all directions there 
are to be found immense beds of peat, which is an excellent fuel for many pur- 
poses, even in its crude state. And we are assured that a very ingenious and 
simple process has been discovered, by which the chief inconveniences in the 
use of crude peat are removed, and a substance produced which is in some 
respects preferable to anthracite. 

The process, which is patented, requires about two weeks to make the 
article fit for use, and then it is in as good shape for handling and tranporta- 
tion as coke. 

In this shape, it is found to be almost pure charcoal, easily lighted, burning 
with a clear fire, producing very little smoke, and leaving only a small resid- 
uum of ashes. The ashes are equal to those of wood for fertilizing purposes. 
The prepared peat has been used for raising steam, for wire-drawing, for 



APPENDIX. 295 

brass-working, and for cooking and heating rooms ; and for all these purposes 
it has been highly approved by good judges. If we are correctly informed, the 
company profess to be able to furnish fuel equivalent to a ton of anthracite for 
five dollars. 

The development of such a source of wealth, and of general relief, lying all 
around in lands that are otherwise utterly valueless, will add at once to the 
general resources of the country, and to the means of comfort and life of all 
classes of society. If this new method is what it is represented to be, — of 
which we have satisfactory evidence, — we earnestly hope it may attract the 
attention of capitalists and business men without delay. 

The high price of coal, the scarcity of wood, and the necessity for an abun- 
dant and consequently cheap article for fuel, have turned the attention of several 
of our own citizens to the peat which is found to a very considerable extent on 
Long Island. In other parts of the Eastern States, the interest of the people 
is already thoroughly aroused on the subject; and, if we are correctly informed, 
a company is established in Boston which is experimenting with peat, and has 
met with some very favorable results. 

There is abundance of peat on Long Island, within reach of this city; and the 
season is not yet too far advanced for cutting and drying it for use in its natural 
shape. Perhaps there is now hardly time enough to get up establishments for 
its improved preparation this season, as some machinery is required to be set 
up. And yet, we believe, if the matter would be taken hold of at once, with a 
few thousand dollars of capital, and a moderate share of judgment and energy, 
something valuable might be accomplished even this year, and we should at 
least be in good readiness for another season. 

From the same paper, Oct. 14, 1865. 

More about Peat. — The use of peat for fuel is but little known in this 
country; but it has become necessary to resort to it as a substitute for coal, as 
a remedy against strikes, extortion, and monopoly. If the experiments now 
in progress to consolidate the crude peat, so as to make it capable of being 
handled and transported without crumbling, and so that it will burn clear like 
coal, are successful, it will prove a formidable rival for anthracite itself. It is 
believed that deposits of peat suitable for fuel are scattered all over the North- 
ern States in such abundance as would supply a very considerable part of the 
demand for fuel, and at a price much below that of anthracite, because it lies 
on the surface of the ground, is procured with very little labor, and, being 
found in almost every neighborhood, would make a great saving in the cost of 
transportation. 

The great desideratum has been to contrive a process by which it can be put 
in merchantable shape at a cost not inconsistent with its value for fuel. Most 
of the numerous experiments, both in this country and in Europe, have resulted 
in nothing, either because they failed to effect the object, or that they were too 
expensive in working. A large part of the contrivances looked to the appli- 
cation of powerful pressure to solidify the peat into blocks convenient both for 
handling and for use; but powerful pressure is not only expensive: it docs 
not effect the object. Peat is so porous and elastic, that it will not give up 
either its moisture or air by pressure. 

A company in Boston have proceeded on a different and quite novel principle, 
and have at length completed the invention of a simple and rational process, by 
which crude peat, as it is taken from its bed, can be converted into a solid, dry 
fuel, in good shape, in large quantities, and at a moderate cost. The machinery 
required is simple, and not too expensive for use, and can be easily set up and 
run by the side of the peat-bed. wherever a Bmall yard can be levelled for 



296 APPENDIX. 

drying it in the open air. They are now prepared to furnish their machines at 
reasonable prices, with a guaranty that they will work as represented. The 
machine receives the crude peat as taken from the bog, and delivers it, in a 
very few minutes, condensed, and formed into blocks of any desired form, 
ready to be dried in the open air, and with but small cost for manual labor. 
Its tenacity for water is so far changed, that it dries in a small part of the time 
required for curing the ordinary peat. 

We have seen specimens of the peat condensed by this process, and are 
acquainted with the principle on which the machine works, and think there 
is no reason to doubt its efficiency. The personal character of the principal 
managers is fitted to inspire confidence that they would not come before the 
public unless they had got a good thing, calculated to be a general benefit. 
Indeed, their method may fairly claim to be not only the best, but the only 
one, so far as is known, in this country, that is at once effectual, cheap, and 
rapid. They are the pioneers of the present movement in favor of the use of 
peat, having been engaged for several years in their experiments and inquiries. 
Their actuary, Mr. T. H. Leavitt, has published a pamphlet of a hundred and 
eighteen pages, containing more information — historical, scientific, and prac- 
tical — about peat, we venture to say, than any other man in the country is 
possessed of. And his perseverance is well entitled to the success which seems 
about to be realized. 

Those who wish to become thoroughly informed should procure this pamph- 
let ; and those who would transact business with the company, should address 
the agents, Leavitt & Hunnewell, 49 Congress Street, Boston. 

From " The Lowell Journal." 

This is a good-looking pamphlet of a hundred and sixty-eight pages, giving 
tis all the information upon the subject of peat that the most laborious and 
extensive research can possibly furnish. 

The subject of fuel is one in which all of us are directly interested. "Wood 
and coal, their different varieties and properties, are tolerably well understood ; 
but peat, to a considerable extent, among us, is a new article; and even those 
who have used it in its crude state do not realize the extent to which it might 
be used, especially for manufacturing purposes, if properly prepared, and 
placed in the market. 

From " The Prairie Farmer," Chicago, 111. 

This subject is attracting much attention at various points, on account of the 
scarcity and high price of fuel. 

From " The Northern Farmer," Fond du Lac, "Wis. 

We have received from- Messrs. Leavitt & Hunnewell, of Boston, Mass., a 
pamphlet on the preparation and uses of peat. With their improved method 
of preparing it, it bids fair to become of great value to our State, as we have, 
no doubt, abundance of it here. It may eventually fill up the greatest de- 
ficiency of our State, by furnishing an article equal to coal for fuel and smelt- 
ing purposes. 

From " The Kenosha (Wis.) Telegraph." 

A Good Thing. — Madison, in this State, and Chicago, 111., have been boast- 
ing for some time past of having in their immediate vicinity large beds of peat, 
which are capable of being turned to good account for fuel for domestic pur- 
poses, but more especially for mechanical purposes. Well, Kenosha cannot 



APPENDIX. 297 

afford to be behindhand in any of these great natural resources ; eo she also 
boasts of her Inexhaustible peat-beds. 

Our fellow-citizen, Harvey Durkee, informs us that he has, on his farm, about 
two and a half miles from the city, a deposit of peat, which has been pro- 
nounced, by those qualifled to judge, to be of the very best quality of that 
article. Old men who have used peat most of their lives, in Ireland, declare 
this to be in every respect equal to the best that country produces. This bed 
is three fourths of a mile in length, twenty rods wide, and ten feet in depth. 
Mr. Durkee has dried and tried some of this peat, and finds that it burns freely, 
makes a very hot fire, and leaves no residuum but a small amount of white 
ashes. He put a hodful of the prepared peat into his coal stove, and it burned 
as long, and gave out as much heat, as. the best quality of hard lump coal. 
With the proper facilities for cutting and preparing the peat for use, wfc under- 
stand it can be furnished, probably, for $8 per ton; and one ton of the peat will 
go as far, and make as much heat, as two tons of the best Lehigh coal, for all 
mechanical purposes. 

Now, if anybody or any company wish to start a woollen factory, or a cotton 
factory even, here is the material for the necessary fuel, so cheap as to throw 
the advantages of water-power into the shade. Since Mr. Durkee proved the 
qualities of this peat, we understand he is decidedly in favor of starting both a 
woollen and cotton factory, confident that no other locality in the State presents 
so many advantages for such manufactures. 

From " The Brunswick (Me.) Telegraph." 

Peat was first discovered in this town by Henry Putnam, Esq., about fifty 
years since, in the swamps east of Stetson Street. Several persons were much 
excited about it as a valuable discovery; but nobody was disposed to go into a 
peat speculation. I'do not think, in the usual manner of cutting and drying, it 
can ever become a popular fuel. The difficulty of getting it thoroughly dry, 
would, in our uncertain climate, be a serious objection; but if it can be cheaply 
manufactured into neat, compact, solid blocks, I see no reason why it should 
not compete successfully with coal and wood. 

This matter interests every one who has to buy a cord of wood. The article 
i6 abundant in this town : I presume all our swamps are underlaid with it.* 
There is a large tract intersected by the McKeen Road, which drains into Mere 
Brook ; the Duck Pond Swamp is another large deposit ; the Dunning Swamp 
on Union and Pleasant Streets; another lies east of Federal Street ; and another 
still farther east, extending from near the river, at the place formerly occupied 
by Mr. Bow, down to Humphrey's Mills; and there are doubtless many other 
localities in the town. N. S. 

From " The Hingham Journal." 

The use of peat as fuel is now attracting, generally, the attention of railroad 
men, manufacturers, and others ; and, in this view, the issue of the pamphlet 
is timely. The treatise is prepared with care, and embodies much useful 
knowledge. 

From " The Vermont Watchman." 

Facts about Peat as an Article of Fuel. — A well-timed and well- 
executed compilation of important facts. We never knew of any use of peat 
for fuel in Vermont, wood having been, and in some portions of the State still 
being, very abundant. There are regions in the State, however, where peat 
will be more economical than wood or coal; and we shall be glad to see it 
tried. Peat abounds in the State, from mountain tops to valley swamps; and 



298 APPENDIX. 

doubtless in many places it is of sufficient depth and solidity for fuel. This 
book describes the article, the mode of cutting and curing, and its uses. For 
many purposes, good peat is at least equal to wood, and for some superior ; 
while its use will drain swamps, and turn them to agricultural account, and 
prevent that denuding of the hills, of the woods, which is fast robbing us of 
water springs, and exposing the hills to be washed clean of the most valuable 
soil, and, in time, to become as ugly and sterile as the hills in the oldest parts 
of Maryland now are. Of all men, the farmers should turn their attention 
to peat, for the preservation of their best forests for more valuable uses 
than fuel. 

From « The Pawtucket (R. I.) Gazette." 

No doubt can be entertained by those who have even a limited knowledge 
of peat, that it can be advantageously used for fuel ; but it has thus far re- 
ceived but very little attention in this country. Mr. Leavitt's facts and 
remarks throw a great amount of light upon the subject, and they ought to 
have a wide circulation. We have an abundance of peat ; and the pamphlet 
before us tells us of its importance as an article of fuel, and how to prepare 
and use it. 

From " The Lowell Citizen." 

In late years, peat has come to be extensively used, not only for fuel, but as 
a source of motive-power, for the manufacture of gas, paper, gunpowder, and 
even for building and ornamental work. The questions of its supply, prepa- 
ration, and most economical use, are of high interest ; and this pamphlet em- 
bodies much needed information, which will aid in their solution. 

From " The Essex County Mercury," Salem, Mass. 

Peat has long been used to a considerable extent for fuel in different parts 
of Essex County ; and not a few of the elder portion of our readers can well 
remember when it was much used in Salem. At the present prices of coal and 
wood, peat is much to be preferred to either of them, for most uses. 

From " The Providence Daily Press." 

" Facts about Peat " are not only interesting, but of the highest value. The 
company who have undertaken to develop the value of peat ought to be en- 
couraged by all who have money to invest in new and probably remunerative 
channels of trade or manufactures. For ourselves we have often wondered 
how little use was made of peat. 

The glowing heat and cheerful light of a peat-fire, are the very ultimata of a 
social evening; and our recollections of such a fire on the hearth at Johnny 
Campbell's, at the head of Loch Rannoch, are of the pleasantest character; so 
pleasant, indeed, that deprived of the sight of the fire, and the smell of the 
reek, we have even endeavored at times to find an insufficient consolation in the 
taste of the peat-reek in the genuine Glenlivit. 

From " The Lawrence Sentinel." 

There can be very little doubt of the utility of the great peat deposits in this 
Commonwealth, to which public .attention has but to be rightly directed, to 
enhance greatly its value ; and this work (" Facts about Peat ") will be found 
to possess a permanent value. 



APPENDIX. 29tJ 

From M The Waltham (Mass.) Sentinel." 

The peat -bogs about us are represented to contain a large percentage of bitu- 
minous matter; and, when the peat is subjected to great pressure, it becomes a 
species of bituminous coal. Peat is said to be the last stage of vegetable matter 
before changing to coal. 

If the working of the peat-bogs will save our woods, which are being cut 
down in such haste, and with so little of consideration, then we hope the at- 
tention of the people will soon be turned to this matter. 

From " The Portland Advertiser." 

We do'not know how extensively this pamphlet has been circulated; but 
we are persuaded that its perusal by every consumer in New England would be 
productive of great good, and excite a new enterprise throughout the New 
Kngland States. 

From " The Middlesex Journal," Lowell, Mass. 

Peat, as an article of fuel, has long been known ; but it has not been so 
extensively used as its merits would warrant. The attention of intelligent 
men in manufacturing and railroad circles has, however, recently been turned 
to the subject ; and we may hope, ere long, that it will take its proper place in 
the household, the manufactory, and on the railroad. 

With coal at §16 and $17 per ton, the public have a deep interest in any 
thing which promises to render fuel more abundant and cheap. 

In many localities in New England, and throughout the country, the earth 
is well stored with peat, which promises to add much to the wealth of those 
farms and districts of country where it is found. 

From " The Boston Traveller." 

Facts about Peat. — It is a thorough production; the author proceeding 
exhaustively, and arranging his abundant matter in a manner that renders the 
task of following him easy and profitable. He has mastered his subject, and 
evidently has neglected nothing that is calculated to illustrate it, and to press 
useful facts on the mind of the inquirer. 

Various, minute, and copious in its facts, and showing how valuable is peat 
as an article of fuel, this work must have a great effect in directing attention 
to a neglected agent for the production of heat ; one which Providence has 
placed most freely at the command of man, and which ought to be made to 
enter very largely into human consumption. 

Mr. Leavitt is literally correct when he says, that the substance of which 
he treats so well " is of sufficient importance to command earnest attention, 
not only from the business man, on the score of its application to domestic 
purposes, manufactures, and the arts, but from the philanthropist, in view of 
the relief it may be made to afford as one of the necessaries of life." 

It needs only that the value of peat should be understood to bring it into 
general use, to the great relief of all interests. 

From " The Scientific American." 

In peat we shall find an economical substitute for coal at its present prices 
(April, 1865), and even at rates much below ; for the marketing of the former 
substance, or preparation of it so as to render it available, must certainly 
cost far less than coal. 

No shafts have to be sunk, no extensive and costly system of engineering 



300 APPENDIX. 

and surveying are needed ; and beyond the expense of the machinery for con- 
densing it, little seems to be required to utilize the deposit with which Nature 
has covered large tracts of land in this country. 
The testimony of scientific men is freely given as to its value. 

From " The Syracuse Journal." 

Dr. R is making arrangements to prepare his peat for market. Now let 

us estimate the quantity upon the fifteen acres. Fifteen acres, at an average 
depth of eight feet, will produce 40,836 cords. Estimating a cord of peat to be 
worth a cord and a half of hard wood, there will be equal in value to 54,448 
cords of hard wood. Estimatiug wood at six dollars a cord, the total value of 
this peat-bed, when marketed, will be $326,688. Allowing sixty-six and two 
thirds per cent, cost for preparing and transporting it to market (which is a 
large allowance), and there will remain a net profit of $108,896. 

Peat emits a considerable flame — about between hard coal and hard wood ; 
it leaves no cinders to sift; it burns equally well in a coal-stove, wood-stove, or 
fireplace, and makes a very pleasant fire. 

From " The New York Evening Post." 

The high prices of coal are having an effect which will soon be turned to the 
advantage of the community. Already they have brought into existence several 
enterprises, which, in a few months, will produce a large supply of fuel from 
the peat deposits of this country ; and it will be likely to come into close com- 
petition with the fuel from the coal mines. 

The probability of continued high prices, together with the favorable results 
of recent experiments with peat, and new discoveries of it in quantities, have 
called the attention of many business men to this substance, as a new source of 
supply. 

The burning or heating properties of the best peat are nearly equal to those 
of anthracite coal. 

There are many peat-beds in this State. A trial of it is making at the Ameri- 
can Institute Pair against coal, with satisfactory results. 

Great interest is felt by many citizens to whose knowledge these facts have 
come, and they are confident that a material change will eventually take place 
in regard to the fuel supply of the country. The tendency will be, in any 
event, to protect the public from speculations and monopolies in coal. 

From " The American Artisan." 

The very high price which coal has lately reached in this country has led some 
enterprising capitalists to turn their attention to the subject of obtaining sup- 
plies of peat for fuel. 

There are in the United States, large quantities of this valuable material. In 
Western New York and on Long Island there are extensive beds ; and there is 
little doubt that in and near the neighborhoods where it is found it may be made 
to serve as an economical substitute for coal, even when that is at a much lower 
price than at present (August, 1864). 

From " The Lockport (K". Y.) Daily Union." 

The rapid advance in the price of wood and coal within the past few years, 
and the near approach of the time when wood, on account of its scarcity, shall 
cease to be generally used as fuel, have led many to investigate the practicabil- 
ity of bringing into use as a substitute, peat, which was known to be in large 
quantities in various parts of the country. It was found to be impracticable to 



APPENDIX. 301 

be used as foe] in its natural state, on account of the foreign matter, and its 
nnwieldinesa ami bulk ; being thus impossible to make it a mercantile commod- 
ity, and difficult and unhandy to use. Many experiments have been tried by 
which the foreign matter could be separated, and the peat put iu some neat and 
compact form, thus making it easy to handle. More or less success has attended 
the various attempts; and iu some parts of the country it is rapidly being 
brought into use. 

In this country, we have inexhaustible beds of peat; and if this experiment 
is the success that is hoped, we need no longer tremble as we see our forests rap- 
idly falling away, or sigh when we read of a strike in a coal mine. It is estimated 
that the cost of manufacturing will be one dollar per ton. All that it will 
bring over three dollars will go to the manufacturer as a profit and interest on 
the capital invested in the bed. Prices, however, regulate themselves in accord- 
ance with the demand ; but it is hardly probable, with all the peat-beds in the 
country produciug fuel, that wood and coal can lord it much longer in their 
present manner. One ton of this peat is estimated to burn as long as a ton of 
coal or two cords of wood. The smoke from it is much like that from hickory 
wood — thin and blue; there appeared to be no unpleasant odor; and the 
ashes are not troublesome, like coal-ashes. In fact, there appears to be no 
reason why, if it can be put in merchantable form, that it should not become 
our staple article of fuel. 

The prospect of such a revolution in fuel will undoubtedly interest the com- 
munity at large. 

From " The Springfield (Mass.) Republican." 

The high price of coal and wood is very naturally turning the attention of the 
public to the vast beds of peat which exist in various parts of the country, with 
the hope of finding in them the much-desired cheaper fuel. In old countries, 
peat has long been used as an article of fuel, especially among the poorer classes, 
who have, in fact, known nothing else. But in this comparatively new coun- 
try, where hitherto both wood and coal have been abundant and cheap, our 
peat-beds have, for the most part, been allowed to lie unmolested, as the product 
could not be taken out and prepared for market at a cost low enough to make it 
any object to bring it into competition with other articles of fuel. 

But with ingenuity, stimulated by the present high prices, the problem of 
how to prepare peat for market at a reasonable cost bids fair to be speedily 
solved, if, indeed, it is not already satisfactorily answered. Of the value of 
peat, properly prepared, as an article of fuel, there is no question. Besides its 
worth for domestic purposes, in which the majority of people are most inter- 
ested, it is unrivalled by any other substance for raising steam, and has lately 
been tried with marked success in the locomotives of the New York Central 
Railroad. Being free from sulphur, peat is also well adapted for the reduction 
of ores ; and in making the best iron, and in the finer processes of making iron and 
steel, it is equal to wood-charcoal; and, when charred, it is pronounced better 
for welding purposes than charcoal itself; while some kinds of peat are equal 
to the best bituminous coal for making gas. 

At present, the great bulk of peat would make the item of freight a large 
one if it was transported any great distance. But we do not see why, already, 
peat cannot be furnished to those who live near the beds, at a cost much less 
than coal, to which it is said to be equal, ton for ton, for mauy purposes. La- 
bor and freight are, of course, the principal items in the cost of peat; and, as 
soon as quick and cheap methods of extraction and condensation are really dis- 
covered, there will be a large use of peat, and some of the profits that now go 
into the pockets of owners of coal mines will be transferred to the proprietors 
of peat-beds. 



302 APPENDIX. 

It may not be generally known that there are almost inexhaustible peat 
deposits within a few miles of this city. .Mr. Reuben Brooks, of West Spring- 
field, owns a large peaj-bog, and there are others in West Springfield and other 
towns in this vicinity. Mr. Brooks has long used peat in his own family with 
satisfactory results, burning it in a common coal grate, where it gives forth a 
blaze like wood, and a heat much softer and pleasanter than that from the com- 
mon anthracite or even bituminous coals. We have no means of knowing how 
the price of it delivered would compare with the price of other kinds of fuel'; 
but peat is going to be the fashion before many years, and Springfield is to be 
congratulated on having a large supply close at hand. 

From a Paper recently read before the British Association, by 
D. K. Clark, C. E., of London. 

"Torbite:" ANew Preparation of Peat. — The writer had occasion 
a short time since to inspect professionally the works established at Horwich, 
hi Lancashire, to manufacture fuel and charcoal from peat, and was so struck 
with all that came under his notice, and impressed with the importance of the 
results obtained, that he feels that he cannot bring a more interesting subject 
before the meeting. 

The question of the manufacture of peat into fuel is in reality a question of 
supplementing the natural supplies of coal with a fuel which may be made superi- 
or to it in every respect, more abundant, and more readily accessible. The con- 
sumption of coal is so enormous, and goes 6n annually increasing at such a rate, 
that, for some time past serious apprehensions have been entertained that our 
coal measures will be exhausted at no very distant period. Our stock of coal, 
excluding all that lies at a greater depth than 4000 feet, has been estimated at 
83,544,000,000 tons. In 1863, the consumption reached 86,300,000 tons ; and the 
average rate of increase for the last ten years has been two millions of tons a 
year. Thus, supposing our stock to have been correctly estimated, in less than 
a hundred years our coal will be exhausted. Fortunately, however, Nature has 
not left us dependent on our coal measures alone, but has also given us our bogs. 

Peat, it is well known, possesses many most valuable properties as a raw 
material for fuel ; but the attempts hitherto made to utilize peat on a large scale 
have proved failures, owing to the difficulty of dealing with a substance exceed- 
ingly bulky, very loose, and holding from seventy-five to eighty-five per cent, 
ol* water. 

To separate the water, and to condense and mould the peat into convenient 
sizes at a cost sufficiently low to render it commercially available as fuel, is a 
problem which has baffled the efforts of many operators. In most instances, 
compression has been applied for the purpose of imparting the requisite degree 
of solidity, by means of powerful hydraulic presses, or other machinery. In 
the process adopted by Messrs. Gwynne and Mr. C. Hodgson, the peat is first 
dried and powdered, and then pressed into blocks; but the action of compres- 
sion is purely mechanical, and, though it imparts great compactness by bringing 
the particles of the peat into close contiguity, it does not really solidify the 
substance, since, on being exposed to heat, it resumes its original form, and 
crumbles to pieces. Fuel thus prepared is totally incapable of resisting the 
action of a blast, or even of a moderate draft; and, though Mr. Hodgson still 
e irries on the manufacture of fuel by this process, the consumption is very 
limited. 

According to Mr. Cobbold's mode of treatment, the peat is immersed in water 
for the purpose of separating the fibre from the more decomposed matter, and 
the water is afterwards got rid of either by simple evaporation, or by means of 
centrifugal power; but, though by this means a very dense fuel is obtained, the 
separation of the fibre deprives the fuel of coherency, besides which the process 



APPENDIX. 303 

is laborious niid costly. Attempts have also been made in Ireland to utilize 
peat by manufacturing it solely for the Bake of its chemical products. Many 
valuable products have thus been obtained, from which even paramne candles 
have been made : but the cost far exceeded the market* value. 

But su4h attempts have not been altogether in vain, inasmuch as the experi- 
ence thus gained in the treatment of peat has proved of great value. To know 
what will not do, is a great step towards knowing what will do. By the system 
of manufacture at Horwich, mechanical compression in any manner is studiously 
avoided, being not only costly, but also ineffectual. The means of separating 
the water suspended in the peat have been carefully perfected. The necessity 
of dealing with and getting rid of such a largo proportion of water has been a 
standing difficulty from the first, and the cause of excessive expenditure. At 
Horwich, the problem has been carefully studied, and the difficulties appear to 
have been successfully overcome. Until a mode of artificially drying peat 
rapidly and economically had been worked out, air-drying was necessarily re- 
sorted to; and where limited quantities of fuel — say about a hundred tons a 
year — only, are required to be made, air-drying may suffice; but for large 
quantities it would be, in our fickle climate, too uncertain a process to be de- 
pended on, and for seven months in the year, it would not be available at all. 

According to the system matured and established at Horwich, the peat, as it 
comes from the bog, is thrown into a mill expressly constructed, by which it 
is reduced to a homogeneous pulpy consistency. The pulp is conveyed, by 
means of an endless band, to the moulding machine, in which, while it travels, 
it is formed into a slab, and cut into blocks of any required size. The blocks 
are delivered by a self-acting process on a band, which conveys them into the 
drying-chamber, through which they travel forwards and backwards on a 
series of endless bands at a fixed rate of speed, exposed all the time to the 
action of a current of heated air. The travelling bands are so arranged that 
the blocks of peat are delivered from one to the other consecutively, and are 
by the same movement turned over in order to expose fresh surfaces at regular 
intervals to the action of the drying currents ; so that they emerge from the 
chamber dry, hard, and dense. To the peat substance thus treated the name 
of " torbite " has been given, from the Latin torbo, by which name peat is con- 
stantly mentioned in ancient charters. 

The next stage in the process is the treatment of the torbite in close ovens, 
when it may either be converted into charcoal for smelting purposes, or may 
be only partially charred for use as fuel for generating steam, or in the pud- 
dling furnace. 

The whole of the Horwich system has been planned with a view to the 
utmost economy of time and labor. The raw peat is nearly altogether auto- 
matically treated by steam power. Introduced at one end, it issues from the 
other in the form of charcoal within twenty-four hours after it is excavated 
from the bog; and the manual labor expended is almost entirely limited to the 
first operation of digging : consequently the actual outlay in labor and fuel, in 
the production of the charcoal, does not exceed from 10s. to 12s. per ton; but, 
in addition to the economy thus effected by charring in close ovens, a consider- 
able quantity of valuable chemical protlucts are yielded, as ammonia, acetic 
acid, pyroxylic spirit, and paraffine oils, the sale of which alone will nearly 
cover the expenses of the whole process. 

The fatty matter, separated by distillation, forms an excellent lubricating 
grease ; the yield of which averages about five per cent, of the weight of charcoal 
produced. In its crude state, it has been sold for £12 per ton at Horwich. 

The charcoal made from torbite is extremely dense and pure. Its heating 
and resisting powers have been amply and severely tested, and with the most 
satisfactory results. At the Horwich Works, pig-iron has been readily melted 



304 APPENDIX. 

in a cupola. About 80 tons of superior iron have been made with it in a small 
blast furnace, measuring only 6 feet in the boshes, and about 26 feet high. The 
ore smelted was partly red hematite, and partly Statfordshire ; and the quan- 
tity of charcoal consumed was 1 ton 11 cwt. to the ton of iron made; but, in a 
larger and better constructed furnace, considerably less charcoal \mll be re- 
quired. It has also been tried in puddling and air furnaces, with equally good 
results, considerably improving the quality of the iron melted. For this pur- 
pose, the fuel was only partially charred, in order not to deprive it of its flame, 
which is considerably longer than that from coal. Some of the pig-iron made at 
Horwich was then converted into bars, which were afterwards bent completely 
double, when cold, without exhibiting a single flaw. Messrs. Brown & Len- 
nox, in testing this iron for chain •cables, have reported that its strength was 
proved to be considerably above the average strength of the best brands. 

In Germany, peat mixed with wood-charcoal is very extensively used in the 
production of iron; the peat, as prepared there, not being sufficiently solid to 
do the work alone ; but it is found that the greater the proportion of peat that 
can be used, the better is the quality of the iron produced. The gas delivered 
from the high furnaces has also been satisfactorily employed in the retining of 
iron and the puddling of steel. The value of peat in the production of iron has 
long been established. Iron metallurgists are agreed in the opinion that iron 
so produced is of very superior quality. In every stage of iron manufacture, 
and in welding, peat-charcoal is most valuable. At Messrs. Hick & Son's 
forge, in Bolton, a large mass of iron, about 10 inch square, was heated to a 
welding heat with peat-charcoal, made at Horwich. The time occupied was 
less than the operation would have taken with coal; the whole mass was 
equally heated through without the slightest trace of burning on the outside; 
and in hammering out the mass, as much was done with one heating as ordi- 
narily required two heatings to effect. The importance of obtaining an abun- 
dant supply of peat-charcoal, at cheap rates, cannot, therefore, be too highly 
estimated. 

For the generating of steam, the fuel made at Horwich has also been well 
tested, and its superiority over coal, practically demonstrated, both in locomo- 
tives and stationary engines. On the Northern Counties Railway of Ireland, a 
train was driven with it from Belfast to Port-rush, a distance of seventy miles. 
The result at the end of the journey showed a saving, as regards weight con- 
sumed, of 25 to 30 per cent, over the average of three months' working with 
coal on the same journey. There was an excess of steam throughout the run, 
though the fire-door was constantly open, and the damper down. At starting, 
the pressure was 100 lbs., but during the trip, and while ascending a steep 
incline, it rose to 110 lbs., and afterwards to 120 lbs., with the fire-door open. 
While running, there was no smoke, and very little when standing still. 

At the Horwich Works, the fuel was tested against coal under the boiler 
there. This was done on two consecutive days, the fire having, on each occa- 
sion, been raked out the night previous. The following results were obtained : 
Coal got up steam to 10 lbs. pressure in two hours 25 minutes, and to 25 lbs. 
pressure in 3 hours; peat-fuel got up steam to 10 lbs. in 1 hour 10 minutes, 
and to 25 lbs. in 1 hour 32 minutes ; 21 cwt. of coal maintained steam at 30 lbs. 
pressure, for 9| hours : 11} cwt. of peat-fuel maintained steam at the same pres- 
sure for 8 hours. But, in addition to this, a large economy is effected by the 
use of peat-fuel for the generation of steam, in the saving of boilers and fire- 
bars from the destruction caused by the sulphur iu coal, from which peat is 
free. In Bavaria, peat-fuel has been used on the railways for several years 
past ; and the economy effected by its use in the wear and tear of the engines is 
stated by the officials, in their reports, to be very considerable. 

The bogs of Great Britain and Ireland cover an area exceeding five millions 



APPENDIX. 305 

of teres, the average depth of which may be taken at twenty feet. Nature has 
thus supplied us with the means of adding- to our stock of fuel some twenty 
thousand millions of tons. In Ireland, about a million and a half of acres 
have been thoroughly surveyed. In the reports of these surveys, it is stated, 
that beneath the peat an excellent soil, well situated for drainage, was found, 
fit for arable or pasture laud. 

When it is considered what peat is capable of doing, and all the results in- 
volved in the question of utilizing peat, it is impossible not to feel impressed 
with the conviction, that the foundation has been laid of an undertaking of 
great national importance and interest. 

From " The American Bailway Times." 

Steam Fuel. — Wherever the main source of artificial motion may lie 
hidden away, awaitiug ultimate development, whether in air, or in water, or 
in the heat of the earth itself, matters less to the practical man than to the 
philosopher. 

Coal has long been the main source from which that power has been ob- 
tained. How much longer it may continue so to be is uncertain, not so much 
from any immediate probability of failure in the supply, as that, of late, other 
substances have been utilized which hitherto were comparatively unknown, or 
considered inapplicable to the purpose of steam generation. It becomes us to 
consider, not only how to economize that supply, which we can at present call 
our own, but how to produce a fuel which shall satisfactorily occupy its posi- 
tion as well now as when our coal-fields cease to yield. 

The two main sources from which the. present generation may expect to 
derive practical benefit, and to which we may look for aid in the economizing 
of our coal, are peat and petroleum. 

The deposits of peat in Great Britain and Ireland occupy an area of about six 
million acres. The thickness of peat varies in different localities, from two to 
forty or fifty feet. Assuming the average thickness to be only twelve feet, an 
acre would yield about 3500 tons of dried peat; consequently the aggregate 
estimated acreage in this country would produce twenty-one thousand million 
tons of dried peat, equal to the supply of twenty-one million tons per annum 
for a thousand years. It cannot be supposed that these enormous masses of 
vegetable matter were created to be either useless or noxious. Nor is it a mat- 
ter for wonder that attention has often been directed in this country, and in 
others where similar deposits exist, to the means of utilizing the peat, and re- 
claiming the land which it covers. 

The value of peat, when properly dried, is well known and admitted, both 
for domestic fuel and for generating steam ; and charcoal properly made from 
such peat is, in all respects, equal, if not superior, to wood-charcoal. When 
dug from the bog, peat generally contains from fifty to seventy-five per cent. 
of water. 

The inference drawn from practical experience is, that, to insure commercial 
success in utilizing peat, the operation must be inexpensive and expeditious, 
costly machinery being avoided. 

From four to five tons of peat, as taken from the bog, are required to make 
one ton of dry condensed peat. The cost varies in different localities; but it 
may be safely assumed that the average cost will not exceed that of coal at the 
pit's mouth. Peat thus prepared burns very freely, will stand a powerful 
blast, emits great heat, is smokeless, and produces less ash than the average 
of coal or coke. It is impervious to water, improves by keeping, and is incapa- 
ble of self-ignition. From two and a half to three tons of prepared peat will 
make one ton of excellent charcoal, according to the degree of carbonization 
required. 

20 



306 APPENDIX. 

The general heating power of the condensed peat has been proved to be very 
superior to that of coal ; and, in fact, this article appears to be well adapted as 
a fuel for steam-engines, whether marine, stationary, or locomotive. Its use 
has been found to effect a saving of fifty per cent, in time in generating steam, 
and it will do double duty as compared with coal. The absence of smoke and 
clinkers, and the preservation of furnace-bars and boilers from the destructive 
effects of sulphur from coal, are additional and important advantages. 

The locomotive engineers of three railways in Ireland united to carry out a 
practical trial of the condensed peat on the Belfast and Northern Couuties 
Railway, with the view of testing its qualities as a fuel for locomotives. The 
trip was made from Carrick Junction to Ballymena, a distance of twenty-seven 
miles. During the whole of the journey there was an excess of steam, al- 
though the fire-door was kept continually open, and the damper down, for the 
greater portion of the distance. The pressure at starting was a hundred 
pounds per square inch. The commencement of the journey was up an incline 
of one in eighty, four miles long, and with double curves; while ascending 
the incline, the pressure rose to a hundred and ten pounds, and afterwards to a 
hundred and twenty pounds ; and this with the fire-door open. The speed was 
about forty miles an hour. While on the way, the fuel emitted no smoke, and 
very little when at stations. The fire-box was examined at Ballymena, and a 
very small portion of clinker was found. The smoke-box was perfectly free 
from cinders or dust, — a proof that the fuel had stood the blast exceedingly 
well ; and it is the recorded opinion of the experimenters that the condensed 
peat was in every respect well adapted as a fuel for locomotive purposes. 

In the face of such results as these, bearing the testimony they do to the 
fitness of properly prepared peat as a steam-fuel, the wonder is that it has not 
been generally brought into use. One reason why it has not, may lie in the 
limited quantity manufactured for steam purposes, the greater value of peat 
lying at present in its conversion into charcoal for smelting, for which purpose 
it is used in considerable quantities with the best results. Another cause for 
its non-adoption may be the hesitancy to depart from the old beaten track, 
which so often stops the way of improvement. The success of the practical 
trials it has undergone ought to be sufficient to commend its further use. Xo 
serious alterations to machinery are involved in its adoption, the only thing 
necessary being a reduction of space between the fire-bars to insure perfect 
combustion. 

Such a substitute for coal or coke deserves attention. The comparative ab- 
sence of smoke, and the total absence of all sulphurous vapors, ought to be a 
sufficient inducement, independently of the economy effected. 

The question of the use of peat in locomotives is not a new one. About 
twenty years since Lord Willoughby d'Fresby had some tried in the Hesperus 
Locomotive on the Great "Western Railway. This engine was of Hawthorn's 
patent return-tube construction, and required about one third more peat than 
coke, with equal drafts. Mr. Vignoles has also interested himself in the 
same direction. Opposite opinions, however, have always existed as to the 
economical merits of peat; but it may yet prove an efficient substitute for coal 
in all its varied uses. 

From an Article in the New York Reformer, by Dr. W. V. V. 
Rosa, of Watertown, W. Y. 

What is peat ? Where should we look for it, and how shall we know it ? 
In what is it better than wood or coal, and in what respects inferior? Is it 
scarce or abundant' Is a peat-bed of much value in money ? and what is tho 
history of peat ? 



APPENDIX. 307 

All those, being questions of keeping warm and cooking and gas and motive- 
power and making money, are asked almost daily; for peat is becoming a sub- 
ject of active interest everywhere at present from the high prices we have to 
pay for wood and coal. 

All over the State, just now, solitary individuals in high boots, and trousers 
tucked in, with a long pole over the shoulder, and speculation in their eyes, 
may be seen following a sloppy, crane-like course of life, mysteriously wading, 
about where bullfrogs most do congregate, who, if they are asked what in the 
world they are doing way out there, return a very swampy kind of answer; 
while they hurry on and leave you as clear as mud upon the mystery of their 
queer accoutrements, and unaccustomed advent, and their marshy ways. Yet, 
if you become familiar with the matter but just a Little, the fog will rise from 
the subject, and you'll understand it easily, that it is peat-beds they are looking 
after ; and that, if one should happen to exist upon your farm, it may be an ex- 
cellent thing for yourself to know, as an acre of peat may be worth a thousand 
dollars, or two thousand even, instead of being a worthless bog and a nuisance, 
so given up to croakings and paludal dirges, that even abundant liquidation 
cannot still these " voices of the night." 

But to return to the peat, — to the what and where is it. In answering, let 
us review for a moment what we all know concerning wood. It will assist in 
following the changes which take place in one form of it, — the vegetable fibre 
of mosses and ferns, for instance, — while it is passing into peat; most peat 
being the product of partially decomposed and partially preserved beds of 
mosses and ferns in swampy places. 

Wood, then, is a compound substance, mainly carbon, — that is, coal — united 
variously with some mineral substances, such as potash, lime, silex, together 
with gases, — oxygen and hydrogen, and with water, &c, in the form of gums, 
resins, starch, sugar, and the like, in great variety. 

These substances, in burning, form new compounds, such as carbonic acid, 
creosote, wood-vinegar, naphtha, alcohol, and the like, which pass away in 
smoke and vapor; and the other parts remain as ashes. 

If, however, we wish to convert the wood into charcoal, the process is con- 
trolled and modified somewhat. The wood, gathered in bulk, is covered over 
thickly with earth, to prevent free access of air; a very little being admitted 
below, sufficient, and a trifle more, however, to consume that portion near the 
air-holes. A tolerably high heat is thus diffused throughout the pit ; and the 
slight excess of air thereby quickened in its action, soon causes new combina- 
tions to take place, and decomposes and carries off the more destructible parts; 
and then, the draft being closed, the fire goes out, the pit cools down, and, the 
earth being removed, the coal is ready for use. By this means, excepting just 
about the air-holes, only a part, the more volatile and destructible constituents 
of the wood, are burned or recomposed, or pass away, while the main part — 
the carbon and mineral part — is left unconsumed. 

Now what is understood by burning? When we say a substance burns, it 
signifies usually that the substance — coal or gas, wood, weeds, grass or moss, 
for instance— unites very rapidly with oxygen, which is abundant in the air; 
the substance burned being thus changed in its form, but not destroyed, not 
annihilated, as that, of course, would be impossible. All that existed in the 
wood before, still continues to exist, though in other shapes ; mainly in gases, 
partly in liquids, and partly in mineral, as in the ashes. During this process, 
or rather by it, heat is created. If the process goes on very fast, it is very hot; 
if slow, less hot; and though so very slow indeed that no beat can be perceived, 
the burning is in reality still going on, though the heat is unobserved. It will 
exist, however, though in a degree too slight to cause sensation of the slightest 
warmth, 



308 APPENDIX. 

Metals — iron, for instance — may burn, that is, unite, the same as wood or 
coal, with oxygen. In this case but little gas is formed ; nearly the whole 
remaining as oxide of iron; that is, as rust. Rust is the ashes of iron. If the 
oxidation is rapid, as when it is burned in a jar of pure oxygen, great heat and 
light are caused ; if slow, as when iron rusts in damp air, or under water, none 
is observed; but yet the rusting of iron under water is as really a burning of 
the iron as when the same occurs in oxygen, or at the forge, with intensest 
heat and light. 

Water, indeed, being composed in part of oxygen, and holding a little extra 
in solution, is a good substance (strange as it may sound) to burn things with; 
in some instances better by far than air. And this is an essential point to ob- 
serve in studying the formation of peat, that water is a good substance to burn 
things with ; that is, if you are in no hurry, if you have years to speud in burn- 
ing a very little, — so very slowly that an insurance policy might run out and be 
renewed, and out again a score of times, before the job is finished. 

Although water, by preventing the free contact between actively burning 
bodies and the air, will " put out " fire, that is, will stop the rapid combustion 
which air favors and supports, still in reality the water does not put out the 
fire absolutely, as chemists would define the term, but rather, in many cases, 
makes its continuance certain, though centuries might be the measure of the 
slowness of the work. 

One thing more, essential : Though water will burn many things better than 
air (even iron for instance, which, unless very highly heated from without, will 
not rust at all, that is, not burn, in dry air), still it is slower, or will not burn 
other substances which are easily consumed in air. And coal is just one of 
these. Coal will not oxidize, that is, not burn or rust or decay in even hot 
water. It will keep there forever. 

And now, it being clear that water prevents rapid oxidation by excluding 
free access of air, and yet insures its slow continuance to a certain stage by 
furnishing a little, and that it burns and converts most substances easily or 
surely, and stops at others, among which is coal, it may be understood with 
but little further thought, how peat is formed, and where it is most likely to be 
found. 

We can see that where large quantities of woody substances, such as mosses, 
ferns, &c, are for a long time accumulated, and remain always thoroughly 
soaked with water, as in many swampy localities, such places may be con- 
sidered much like very slow-burning coal-pits; that they are places where 
mainly, by an exceedingly lingering oxidation, new compounds and recompo- 
sitions take place, and the more easily consumable portion of the vegetable 
matters there gathered, being volatilized or burned, pass off, and leave the 
coaly portion especially, unconsumed, much in the same way, in principle, that 
it is made and left in ordinary pits, the water acting here, in part, as the earth 
covering does there, to govern and moderate the changes and oxidation by 
preventing free access of air, yet allowing or furnishing a little; and finally, 
when the coal-state is reached, the bed being already cool, the oxidation, ab- 
sorptions, and recompositions cease, and the carbon, ready for use, is preserved 
for centuries. 

When wood or vegetable fibre dies, and remains in places freely exposed to 
air and sun, it is soon almost wholly decomposed, passing away in gases main- 
ly, as has been mentioned; and but very little of it remains. If, however, in a 
cool climate, and other circumstances being favorable, it falls in large amount 
into places kept always thoroughly wet, then the decomposition is only partial, 
and the most of the carbon remains. 

A peat-bed, therefore, during its formation certainly, must be looked format 
least in this climate, in swampy, boggy places, yet not too wet for vegetation 
to exist. 



APPENDIX. 309 

The great body of most peat-beds result from a variety of moss called 
Sphagnum pahtstre; in part also from ferns or brakes, rushes, reeds, and other 
plants ; and even fallen timber occasionally constitutes a part. This bog-moss, 
of which there are many varieties, flourishes luxuriantly in such positions ; its 
fibres growing even a foot and a half in length. And it has this quite re- 
markable peculiarity, that, while its old roots and lower portions die in the wet 
soil or water, new roots spring out from the stem above ; and thus, without 
interruption, it continues to grow and accumulate year after year, in a deep 
and deeper bed for centuries, at length resulting in a vast collection of carbon, 
frequently almost as pure as bituminous coal. 

Peat-beds, however, are not always wet places after their formation, though 
they must have been so during it. The swale may have been gradually filled 
up with the growth of peat itself, and then soil may have been formed or 
washed over it. In some instances, — as over parts of the Oswego bed just 
opened, — even large trees are growing. The beds are frequently covered with 
cranberry bushes, hazel, willow, and the like, similar to the vegetation on old 
beaver meadows. In some countries, as in Ireland, parts of Switzerland, and 
Fuegia, in humid and quite cool climates, peat may form on plains, and even on 
hill-sides. This is called mountain or hill peat. In a few instances it has been 
found at the bottom of the sea, formed there under peculiar circumstances, 
from beds of sea- weed. The mountain peat, and that on plains, is of an in- 
ferior kind; and its beds usually do not exceed four feet in depth. We need 
not look for any in this region, except that formed in swamps or ponds, unless 
it be in low prairies. Our climate is usually too dry for that on plains or 
hill-sides. 

The influence of heat, it may be mentioned, is so great, that peat is never 
found near the tropics. In the United States, it does not generally occur south 
of the Dismal Swamp. Vegetation, even under water, in hot climates, changes 
too fast and too completely to leave much carbon. In looking for beds in this 
region, we should examine only such places as are or have been quite de- 
pressed. Generally they will be found surrounded on all sides by higher land, 
making a basin-like depression, supplied with a moderate amount of water, 
and generally underlaid with clay, which, with the high land, prevents the 
water from either flowing or filtering away. Frequently the growth of moss 
and ferns in such places is favored by surrounding woods and the shade of 
hills. In such a place, if moss is growing plentifully, and the quantity of 
water is not too great, the probability is strong for a deposit of peat. The 
surface of beds, as stated, varies greatly, as is indicated by the various names in 
common use, such as turf, bog, moss, moor, and heath. Sometimes it is so 
wet, that the peat may be dipped out with a kind of scoop-net, as is occasion- 
ally done in Holland. The surface of others is firm enough to be crossed on 
foot, by stepping carefully on the more solid parts, the clumps of higher 
growth, or by jumping from hummock to hummock, — tussocks, as they are 
called in Scotland. Of others the surface is drier and more even, yet trembles 
as you pass over it : quaking bogs they are sometimes named in England and 
Scotland. 

Animal remains in bogs are quite abundant, especially in Ireland, Flanders, 
and the Isle of Man ; yet none have been found belonging to quadrupeds whose 
living species are peculiar to the tropics, such as the elephant, rhinoceros, 
hyena, tiger, hippopotamus, though remains of such are very common in other 
superficial deposits in Great Britain. These facts together demonstrate the 
geologically recent date of these bogs, as well as the existence of a tropical 
climate at an earlier time, even thus far north. 

Usually peat-beds are very slow of growth. Occasionally, however, they 
increase with some rapidity. One case is mentioned of seven feet gain in 



310 APPENDIX. 

thirty years. At the bottom of them, besides the clay mentioned, there are 
often deposits of marl, sometimes shell marl. This occurs when beds have 
grown in shallow lakes or ponds. Frequently these marl deposits are sufficient 
in amouut to be used freely in agriculture. Occasionally thick crusts of bog- 
iron form on the bottom, and may be of much commercial value in some 
instances. 

But how does peat look in the bed ? The top layers, more generally called 
turf, are quite fibrous, loose, porous, full of leaves, roots, sticks, &c. Deeper 
down, it is more perfectly formed, pure, and dense. A few feet farther down, 
if good, it is quite free from roots and stems ; and, if very good, is free from 
grit, stones, or other foreign matters. In color, it varies from yellowish and 
reddish and dark brown to pure black, called sometimes turbary bog. 

In consistence, the deeper peat varies from thin mud to that of clay pre- 
pared for making brick; some so thin that it maybe dipped up, while the 
drier peat will cut about like paste-blacking, and looking much like it. When 
thoroughly dry and pressed, it may appear like a rough cake of chocolate, 
with or without fibres in it, though under the knife it is much harder; or, if 
of better quality, it will look and cut like licorice-ball. Sometimes it crum- 
bles when dry, but this is an indication that it is poor and imperfectly formed, 
too much like common muck. Usually when dry, if tolerably pure, it is quite 
firm and solid. When wet, if pure, the better qualities feel smooth, greasy 
soft, unctuous, like pure blue clay. Generally, though there are exceptions, 
it has but little odor, and but little taste. In weight it varies with the pressed 
and unpressed, the pure and impure specimens, from some so fibrous that it 
will even float on water, to others about the gravity of bituminous coal. 

And now, knowing how, it appears, and having reached the place, if you 
please, where we may reasonably hope to find it, how shall the examination 
be made ? 

If the surface is soft, run down a pole, and see if any comes up sticking to 
it. See if there is clay or marl on the end of the pole, if you have reached the 
bottom; or run down a gas-pipe, or a tin conductor from your eaves-trough, or 
a gun-barrel, and then push out what comes up inside ; or tie a wide-mouthed 
vial to the end of your pole, with a string attached to the cork, and then, pull- 
ing out the cork at the depth you choose, bring it up, filled of course. If the 
bed is quite dry, dig off the top, and go down, first with the spade, then with 
the gas-pipe, &c. Be a Yankee, and you can examine it easily enough. When 
you have dried some, see how freely it will burn ; how much ashes it leaves. 
It should burn in a stove or grate or fireplace, or heap out of doors, and with- 
out much smoke, if it is tolerably pure and dry. 

It generally gives out, when burning, a bituminous odor, and sometimes, if 
quite turfy, the " peaty " odor, which some few will recognize, having observed 
it in their youth, when partaking of Irish or Scotch whiskey-punch, in the 
making of which whiskey, barley, malted with a peat-fire, is used, which thus 
communicates the peculiar flavor imitated here imperfectly with creosote. 

Occasionally, in a very dry time, peat is discovered by fire which may have 
taken in it from a summer fallow, or from the woods. The peat is recognized 
from the burning continuing so long and deep. If you remember such a fire, 
it may be well to make examination. Very possibly, however, it will prove to 
be only muck, so poor in carbon that it will have but little value. 

Next comes the question whether it is probable that much peat may be 
found, if properly prospected, in this country. Is peat of quite rare, or of 
frequent occurrence ? A little study will show that it is found, and is still 
more frequently to be found, in vast amounts, and in very many places all 
through the Northern States. 

Wood and coal, in this country, have been so cheap, that, thus far, peat has 



APPENDIX. 311 

been discovered mostly by accident rather than by search, and is as little 
understood and valued as petroleum was but a few months — not years — 
ago. YVith us, its general usefulness and peculiar excellence for certain lead- 
ing purposes have excited no proportionate interest. But all this is changing 
fast, and it will not be long before peat will stand prominent among the 
earth's great wealths; only a short time and. like iron and coal, it will be 
considered among the great natural accumulations of riches, and power, and 
national comfort, and well-being with which these Northern States are almost 
over-blessed. 

Hundreds of beds are known, and thousands will be discovered, some in 
almost every county of the North. A word as to its abundance, first abroad, 
and then at home. 

More than one tenth of Ireland is covered with peat; over 1,000,000 acres. 
One of the mosses on the Shannon is fifty miles in length by two or three in 
breadth. Beds vary from thin layers to ninety (90) feet in depth. In 1856, 
there were raised and registered in Ireland, England, and Scotland, 66,645,450 
tons. The average depth of English beds is computed at 19| feet. The bog 
of Montoire, near the mouth of the Loire, in France, is fifty leagues in cir- 
cumference. On an average, there is employed in France the work of 50,000 
men for forty days each year, in the cutting and preparation of peat. It is 
abundant throughout all Northern Europe. 

As to the United States, though as yet so little looked for and so little used, 
it is already known to a great extent. A number of beds have lately been 
discovered within thirty miles of Watertown, and there are without doubt 
many more. The peat from some of these is apparently of the finest quality, 
pure, black, even, dense, free from fibres and impurities. 

The Oswego bed, but lately opened, is about 270 acres in extent, varying 
from five to fifty feet in depth. Ten years ago even, it was estimated that in 
Massachusetts there were at least 120,000,000 cords. By the Massachusetts 
Geological Reports, it is mentioned in about one hundred towns; the beds 
being frequently underlaid with marl. It is abundant in New Jersey, in Con- 
necticut, and Maine ; in fact in all the New-England States. In New York, it 
is especially so along the Hudson River, — over 10,000 acres, it is stated, — and 
an immense supply in the central and western counties. One bed in Warren 
County is sixty feet in depth, and by report of Professor Emmons, must have 
been some 800 years in forming. Near Cold Spring a bed was discovered, the 
railroad track built over it having sunk in and disappeared. 

In "Washington County are over twenty beds ; in Columbia County, thirty 
beds ; in Dutchess County, forty beds ; in Orange County are many beds : over 
15,000 acres. The whole being over 30,000 acres. In twenty-eight of these 
beds marl is found. These last statistics, it should be remembered, are found 
in the New York Geological Survey, made twenty-two years ago, and the fig- 
ures for the present would be much increased of course. Near Rome it is 
abundant, and near Little Falls, Cooperstown, Cherry Valley, Syracuse, &c, 
&c. : it will be found plentiful in St. Lawrence County and Lewis, and prob- 
ably in Jefferson also. In Jefferson, there are some localities apparently well 
adapted to its growth; especially, perhaps, the towns of Theresa, Alexandria, 
Antwerp, Orleans, Pamelia, Philadelphia, Ellisburgh, Henderson, Cape Vin- 
cent, and Wilna. This, however, is by judging mainly from glancing over the 
map, and observing the distribution of low lands. 

Now, what is it good for ? and what is it worth ? It is good in a stove, in a fire- 
place, in a furnace, for locomotives, — much used that way in England and Ba- 
varia,— for stationary engines, wherever motive-power from fire is wanted, in 
the forge, in making pig-iron and steel, for puddling iron, for gas, as a fertilizer, 
for paraffine, &c, as mentioned below. It makes no clinkers in burning, nor are 



312 APPENDIX. 

grate-bars consumed by it as by anthracite. The very best quality, well ground, 
pressed and dried, bulk for bulk, is nearly or quite equal to common bituminous 
coal for general purposes, and much superior for others. From this it goes 
down to almost, worthless qualities. The coal, after the coking of some varie- 
ties, so it is stated, is preferable in making gunpowder to even that from dog- 
wood and alder. Used as a fertilizer, it is sometimes first burned, at others 
unburned, mixed with manures, lime, &c, after it has been subjected to the 
frost and air. Its effects are said to be very permanent on land, lasting 
for years. In the manufacture of iron, especially in puddling iron, good 
qualities are far superior to mineral coal, and if first coked, is better even 
than charcoal. In Sweden, particularly, it is now employed for this purpose. 
Iron men will appreciate its excellence over anthracite in its being usually 
free from sulphur and phosphorus. It will probably be much used in this 
country before many years, both in blast and puddling furnaces, and perhaps 
in making steel. 

Some varieties are of the very first value in manufacturing gas. The French 
have given this department especial attention. 

Most good peat will produce much resin and paraffine, which last is quite 
valuable. It closely resembles spermaceti, and is used for candles, which burn 
like those from wax. 

First-class dry peat, on analysis, averages about as follows to the 100 
parts : — 

Carbon 55 

Hydrogen 5 

Oxygen * 35 

Ashes 5 

100 

The first three constitute the base from which the paraffine, oils, &c, are 
formed. (It should be mentioned, that in some instances, while peat is form- 
ing, part of the carbon of the woody fibre, among other chemical changes, 
retains hydrogen, and thus compounds result richer as hydrocarbons than the 
original fibre.) The very best peat contains about ninety per cent, of combus- 
tible matter. 

Now, how is it prepared for use ? This varies much with the service it is 
to perform. For ordinary fires, it is simply dried in the sun after being cut 
out in bricks with a three-sided spade. For some purposes it is pressed before 
drying. For other purposes it is ground previous to the pressing and drying. 
For others it is coked. 

There are various machines for the grinding and pressing. The Boston Peat 
Company, whose office is 49 Congress Street, Boston, Leavitt & Hunnewell 
being the agents, use and also sell a machine said to be economical for beds 
even of an acre. It is reported, with ten-horse power (steam), to grind and 
press one hundred tons of crude peat, producing twenty-five tons or more of 
condensed fuel per day, nearly as solid as bituminous coal. This machine costs 
$1500 ; and as each bed, of course, furnishes itself with fuel gratis, the cost of 
working is stated to be about two dollars per ton. 

As to the general market value of peat, at present but little can be said. Of 
prices at particular beds, the following are quotations : At the Oswego bed, 
pressed and dry, it goes at about $7 per ton, and delivered at Oswego, $7.50. At 
the Lexington bed mentioned, — or rather peat from it at Boston, — has 
heretofore usually sold for §10 per ton of 2000 pounds; but at present, if 
on hand, it would readily bring, by the thousands of tons, $12, — coal standing 
there at $15. 

The cost of production and the price in market will hereafter, of course, vary 



APPENDIX. 313 



Singly. A large bed, tolerably dry, or favorably situated for draining, 
looated near a place of great consumption, and of pure, dense quality, may be 
worth anywbere from a thousand to some hundreds of thousands of dollars. 
If, however, badly located, very wet, quite poor, &c, it would be worth some- 
thing to you if it was not on your farm. 

There is one great advantage in looking for peat over boring for oil, for 
instance; for peat you put down your well with a pole, and it costs you only 
a couple of wet feet ; and if you don't strike peat, peat has not struck you, — 
you are not floored ; your financial eye is not closed up ; you can go on look- 
ing; and if at last you see it, you can start business on a fair scale with only 
a spade or two ; and thus this is a branch of industry eminently open to uni- 
versally competitive enterprise, with small means and no indorser. How 
much capital, by the way, do you suppose is now, after only so few years' 
operations, engaged in petroleum ? There are 1100 petroleum companies, 
with $100,000,000 of absolutely paid-in capital, $600,000,000 nominal. The 
product of this year, 1865, it is estimated will be 1,500,000 barrels, averaging 
about $14.50 per barrel. 

Peat and petroleum (as their names indicate) are of the same family (Old 
King Coal being the head); and it would not be strange if the younger 
brother, with the shorter name, should do the longer and larger business 
after all, and become the greater favorite of the two. 

There is more democracy in peat, more disposition to be useful generally, 
not distant at all, but at home on everybody's hearth ; ready to lend a hand 
in the kitchen, or work in the shop, or start an engine, or run a factory, an 
iron-mill, if you call on him for a big job, anything 'most, and without much 
fuss and fixing ; a good-natured, industrious, valid, and capable, rather " un- 
washed," rough sort of fellow, but a fellow substantial withal, plenty of 
means, and ready- and able to do a good thing for you, and a big thing, too, 
if you want it. You had better make his acquaintance immediately if he 
happens in your neighborhood. R. 

Prom " The Waltham Sentinel." 
There is more in peat than is dreamed of in most men's philosophy. 



FACTS ABOUT PEAT. 



OPINIONS OP THE PRESS. 

ci An elaborate pamphlet, designed to show the economy of peat as a substi- 
tute for wood and coal, especially where fuel is required in large quantities. 
To this end. Mr. Leavitt has prepared an exhaustive statement of the history 
and properties of peat, the localities of peat-beds, the methods of preparation 
and manufacture, its applicability to the various arts, as well as to the produc- 
tion of heat, and other incidental matters of practical importance." — Worcester 
Spy. 

" It will be found especially interesting to manufacturers and railroad man- 
agers."— Hartford Courant. 

" It is full of information as to the value of peat, and its whereabouts." — 
Bridgeport Farmer. 

" Mr. Leavitt. shows conclusively, that peat is equally as good as coal, and for 
many purposes unquestionably superior, especially for generating steam, and 
for the manufacture of iron, steel, and other metals." — Cheshire Republican. 

" The treatise is prepared with care, and embodies much useful information. 
The use of peat is now attracting, generally, the attention of railroad men, man- 
ufacturers, and others; and, in this view, the issue of the pamphlet is timely." 
— Roxbury Journal. 

" An octavo pamphlet of 120 pages, elegantly printed, compiled by T. H. 
Leavitt, Esq. It is a thorough production, the author proceeding exhaustively, 
and arranging his abundant matter in a manner that renders the task of follow- 
ing him easy and profitable. He has mastered his subject, and evidently has 
neglected nothing that is calculated to illustrate it, and to press useful facts on 
the mind of the inquirer. Various, minute, and copious in its facts, and show- 
ing how valuable is peat as an article of fuel, this work must have a great ef- 
fect in directing attention to a neglected agent for the production of heat, one 
which Providence has placed most freely at the command of man, and which 
ought to be made to enter very largely into human consumption, ilr. Leavitt 
is literally correct, when he says that the substance of which he treats so well 
' is of sufficient importance to command earnest attention, not only from the 
business man, on the score of its application to domestic purposes, manufac- 
tures, and the arts, but from the philanthropist, in -view of the relief it may be 
made to afford as one of the necessaries of life.' 3Ir. Leavitt's work should be 
read by all, as it is fall of information, and it needs only that the value of peat 
should be understood, to bring it into general use, to the great relief of all 
interests." — Boston Traveller. 

(311) 



APPENDIX. 315 

" The pamphlet is full of most interesting facts on the subject." — Hartford 
Press. 

" Replete with interesting and instructive 'Facts,' demonstrating that abun- 
dant sources of supply are to be found in all the New England States, and its 
economy over wood and coal. We are persuaded its perusal by every consumer 
in New England would be productive of great good, and excite a new enterprise 
throughout the New England States." — Portland Advertiser. 

" We would recommend any one whose pockets are interested to the amount 
of $25 for fuel, to get the book and read it." — Brunswick, Me., Telegraph. 

"A well-timed and well-executed compilation of important facts. Of all men, 
farmers should turn their attention to peat for the preservation of their best 
forests for more valuable uses than fuel." — Vermont Watchman. 

" The development of such a source of wealth and of general relief, lying all 
around, in lands that are otherwise utterly valueless, will add at once to the 
general resources of the country, and to the means of comfort and life of all 
classes of society. If this new method is what it is represented to be, of which 
we have satisfactory evidence, we earnestly hope it may attract the attention of 
capitalists and business men without delay." — Brooklyn Union. 

" A very interesting work. The subject is beginning to excite considerable 
attention, not only on account of the fears of a growing scarcity of wood, its 
high price, and also that of coal, but because it forms one of the products of in- 
dustry/which, when perfected from its raw state, forms, like mines of iron, 
lead, copper, and silver, great wealth to a nation." — Union and Journal, Bid- 
deford, Me. 

"A good-looking pamphlet of 120 pages, giving us all the information upon 
the subject of peat that the most laborious and extensive research can possibly 
furnish." — Lowell Courier. 

" It contains more historical facts on the formation of peat-beds than any 
thing we have heretofore seen." — New York Spirit of the Times. 

"A company in Boston have at length completed the invention of a simple 
and rational process, by which crude peat, as it is taken from its bed, can be 
converted into a solid, dry fuel, in good shape, in large quantities, and at a 
moderate cost. The machinery required is simple, and not too expensive for 
use, and can easily be set up and run by the side of the peat-bed. We have seen 
specimens of the peat condensed by this process, and are acquainted with the 
principle on which the machine works, and think there is no reason to doubt its 
efficiency. The personal character of the principal managers is fitted to inspire 
confidence that they would not come before the public, unless they had a good 
thing, calculated to be a general benefit. Indeed, their method may fairly claim 
to be not only the best, but the only one, so far as is known, in this country, 
that is at once effectual, cheap, and rapid. They are the pioneers of the present 
movement in favor of the use of peat, having been engaged for several years in 
their experiments and inquiries. Their actuary, Mr. T. H. Leavitt, has pub- 
lished a pamphlet of 118 pages, containing more information — historical, sci- 
entific, and practical — about peat, we venture to say, than any other man in the 
country is possessed of; and his perseverance is well entitled to the success 
which seems about to be realized. 

" Those who seek to be thoroughly informed should procure it. And those 
who would transact business with the company should address the agents, 
Leavitt & Hunnewell, 49 Congress Street, Boston." — Brooklyn Union. 

"A very handsomely printed and valuable pamphlet, containing 'Facts' 
which are not only interesting, but, if borne out by actual experiment, of the 



316 APPENDIX. 

highest value. Turning listlessly to its title-page, we became so much absorbed 
in its pages, that we read it as closely as an editor ever finds time to read any- 
thing; and we came to the conclusion that the company who bave undertaken 
to develop the value of peat ought to be encouraged by all who have money to 
invest in new, and probably remunerative channels of trade or manufactures. 
The glowing heat and cheerful light of a peat fire are the very ultimatum of a 
social evening." — Providence Daily Press. 

" The work is deserving of more than passing notice. W~ commend it, and 
the subject of which it treats, to the attention of all ; for no subject is of wider 

interest than that of fuel." — Xeicport Daily Xeics. 

" There is an abundance of it, thousands and millions of cords, scattered all 
over New England, and indeed throughout the Xorth. It lies at our very 
doors. It is time that our people were stirring themselves to see if it may not 
be brought into general use, in order to stop the waste of our forests, now grow- 
ing every year more valuable for timber, cheapen the cost of fuel, and render us 
less dependent upon coal monopolists and speculators for this indispensable 
article. The ' Facts,' compiled by Mr. Leavitt, embrace much interesting and 
valuable information." — Boston Journal. 

" A glance over its pages shows that the compiler has labored with care and 
discrimination in the collection and presentation of his materials. We have a 
fondness for peat. The fires of love never burn dimly beside it. Its introduc- 
tion as an article of fuel is no mere fancy, but a subject of grave importance." 
— Brunswick Telegraph. 

" A thorough treatise on the qualities and practical uses of peat." — Old Col- 
ony Memorial. 

u We consider it a valuable, timely, and interesting work. The whole com- 
munity are interested in the subject of which it treats." — Fall Paver Xeics. 

" The questions of its supply, preparation, and most economical use, are of 
high interest ; and this pamphlet embodies much needed information, which will 
aid in their solution. It embraces much curious and instructive matter of prac- 
tical and scientific interest." — LoiceU Citizen. 

" Mr. Leavitt's facts and remarks throw a great amodht of light upon the sub- 
ject, and they ought to have a wide circulation. We have an abundance of 
peat; and the pamphlet tells us of its importance as an article of fuel, and how 
to prepare and use it." — Pawtucket, R. I., Gazette. 

•» A valuable pamphlet, containing ' Facts.' " — Salem Mercury. 



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